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Diversion of Water from the Great Lakes 

and Niagara River 



LETTER FROM 
THE SECRETARY OF WAR 

TRANSMITTING 

WITH A LETTER FROM THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS, REPORTS 
BY COL. J. G. WARREN, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, AND THE 
BOARD OF ENGINEERS FOR RIVERS AND HARBORS, OF AN 
INVESTIGATION AUTHORIZED BY PUBLIC RESOLUTION NO. 8, 
SIXTY-FIFTH CONGRESS, OF THE SUBJECT OF WATER 
DIVERSION FROM THE GREAT LAKES AND THE NIAGARA 
RIVER, INCLUDING NAVIGATION, SANITARY, AND POWER 
PURPOSES, AND THE PRESERVATION OF THE SCENIC BEAUTY 
OF NIAGARA FALLS AND THE RAPIDS OF NIAGARA RIVER. 

(Including plates 1-57.) 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1921 



Diversion of Water from the Great Lakes 

and Niagara River 

fsaif 

LETTER FROM 
THE SECRETARY OF WAR 

TRANSMITTING 

WITH A LETTER FROM THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS, REPORTS 
BY COL. J. G. WARREN, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, AND THE 
BOARD OF ENGINEERS FOR RIVERS AND HARBORS, OF AN 
INVESTIGATION AUTHORIZED BY PUBLIC RESOLUTION NO. 8, 
SIXTY-FIFTH CONGRESS, OF THE SUBJECT OF WATER 
DIVERSION FROM THE GREAT LAKES AND THE NIAGARA 
RIVER, INCLUDING NAVIGATION, SANITARY, AND POWER 
PURPOSES, AND THE PRESERVATION OF THE SCENIC BEAUTY 
OF NIAGARA FALLS AND THE RAPIDS OF NIAGARA RIVER. 

(Including plates 1-57.) 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1921 






• A 









CA~ 



COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 

House of Representatives. 

sixty-sixth congress. 



STEPHEN G. PORTER, 
JOHN JACOB ROGERS, Massachusetts. 
HENRY W. TEMPLE, Pennsylvania. 
AMBROSE KENNEDY, Rhode Island. 
EDWARD E. BROWNE, Wisconsin. 
MERRILL MOORES, Indiana. 
WILLIAM E. MASON, Illinois. 
WALTER H. NEWTON, Minnesota. 
L. J. DICKINSON, Iowa. 
ERNEST R. ACKERMAN, New Jersey. 
FRANK L. SMITH, Illinois. 
JAMES T. BEGG, Ohio. 



Pennsylvania, Chairman. 
ALANSON B. HOUGHTON, New York. 
HENRY D. FLOOD, Virginia. 
J. CHARLES LINTHICUM, Maryland. 
WILLIAM S. GOODWIN, Arkansas. 
CHARLES M. STEDMAN, North Carolina. 
ADOLPH J. SABATH, Illinois. 
J. WILLARD RAGSDALE, South Carolina. 
GEORGE HUDDLESTON, Alabama. 
TOM CONNALLY, Texas. 
THOMAS F. SMITH, New York. 



Edmund F. Erk, Clerk. 






"'" " "■■■■■ i in I,, „ 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Letter of transmittal 11 

Letter of submittal 13 

Report of Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors 15 

Letter of Col. J. G. Warren, Corps of Engineers 61. 

Report of Col. J. G. Warren, Corps of Engineers, United States Army, on 
investigation of water diversion from the Great Lakes and Niagara 

River 61* 

Appendices 103' 

Letter of transmittal, W. S. Richmond, assistant engineer 103 

Appendix A. Description of diversions 103 

Section A. Diversions for navigation purposes 104 

1. St. Marys Falls Canals 104 

2. Chicago Sanitary Canal and Illinois and Michigan Canal 108 

3. Welland Canal 116 

4. Black Rock Canal 120> 

5. New York State Barge Canal .l 125 

6. St. Lawrence River Canals 138 

7. Proposed Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal 145 

8. Other proposed navigation canals, Lake Erie to Lake Ontario- 148 

9. Proposed canals, Lake Ontario to Hudson River 159> 

10. Other present or proposed canals diverting water from the 

Great Lakes or their tributaries 160* 

Section B. Diversions for sanitary purposes 168 

1. Chicago Sanitary Canal 168 

2. Black River Canal 186 

3. Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal 187 

4. Diversions of cities ^ 190> 

Section C. Diversions for power purposes 191 

1. St. Marys Falls Canals 191 

2. Chicago Drainage Canal 193 

3. Welland Canal 195- 

4. New York State Barge Canal 198 

5. Black Rock Canal 207 

6. Canadian and United States power plants at Niagara Falls 207" 

7. St. Lawrence River Navigation Canals 225 

8. Massena Canal .^___^.________ : 22T 

9. Little River at Waddington, N. Y 229 

10. Long Sault Rapids project 231 

11. Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal . 233 

Appendix B. F'eld and office operations * 234 

Appendix C. Preservation of scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and of the 

rapids of Niagara River : 253 

Letter of transmittal, First Lieut. Albert B. Jones, Engineers 253 

1. The problem 253 

2. Allowable diversions around the Falls 270 

3. Remedial works 273 

4. Allowable diversions around the rapids 278 

5. Division of proposed diversion and of cost of remedial works 280> 

Supplementary report Lieut. Jones 281 

Appendix D. Propositions for utilizing diversions with greater economy 285- 

1. General statement 285 

2. Present Niagara Falls plants 292: 

3. Proposed plant using entire diversion and total head 304 

4. Proposed plants dividing diversion but using full head 315 

5. Proposed plants dividing diversion and dividing head 316 

6. Proposed plants using full diversion but dividing head 324 

7. Proposed power development combined with ship canal 326' 

3 



4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Appendix D — Continued. Page. 

8. Proposed Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal 332 

9. Plants proposed by various interests 335 

10. Comparison and discussion of proposed developments 338 

Appendix E. Effects of diversions upon lake levels 352 

1. General principles 352 

2. Outlets of the Great Lakes and formulas of discharge 354 

3. Effect of ice on river flow and lake levels 360 

4. Hydrological data 364 

5. Effects of present diversions : 369 

6. Effects of proposed diversions 376 

7. Remedial works 377 

Appendix F. Economic value of diversions 386 

1. Effect upon navigation 386 

2. Effect upon riparian interests 395 

3. Value to Chicago of its diversion 396 

4. Value to public of effect on power production 398 

Appendix G. International and interstate matters involved 401 

1. International matters involved 401 

2. Treaty provisions 405 

3. Interests of various States 413 

PLATES. 

(In portfolio.) 
No. 

1. Great Lakes Drainage Basin. 

2. St. Marys River. 

3. St. Marys Rapids, locks, and canals. 

4. Chicago Drainage Canal. 

5. Sanitary District of Chicago. 

6. Niagara River and vicinity. 

7. Black Rock Canal and vicinity. 

8. Canals of western New York. 

9. Canals of the St. Lawrence River, Galop and Morrisburg Canals. 

10. Canals of the St. Lawrence River, Farran Point and Cornwall Canals. 

11. Profile of Niagara River, Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. 

12. Reproduction of plate 2, Deep Waterways report of 1897. 

13. Topographic map, Niagara Falls and vicinity, sheet No. 1. 

14. Topographic map, Niagara Falls and vicinity, sheet No. 2. 

15. Lower Niagara River profile. 

16. Niagara Gorge. American side in vicinity of Lewiston. 

17. Typical geologic section of Horseshoe Falls. 

18. Crest line of Horseshoe Falls, showing recession. 

19. Current directions, vicinity of Horseshoe Falls. 

20. Current velocities, vicinity of Horseshoe Falls. 

21. Soundings, vicinity of Horseshoe Falls. 

22. Rock surface elevations, vicinity of Horseshoe Falls. 

23. Discharge of Horseshoe Rapids by float measurements. 
24 and 25 canceled. 

26. Proposed remedial works in Horseshoe Rapids. 

27. Distribution of flow through Horseshoe Rapids after construction of pro- 

posed remedial works. 

28. Present American power plants at Niagara Falls. 

29. Niagara Falls Power Co., hydraulic plant, stations 2 and 3. 

30. Niagara Falls Power Co., hydraulic plant, cross sections of station 3. 

31. Niagara Falls Power Co., Niagara plant. 

32. Niagara Falls Power Co., Niagara plant, cross section of power house No. 2. 

33. Proposed power developments at Niagara Falls. 

34. Tailrace tunnel proposition power house. 

35. Pressure tunnel proposition, intake. 

36. Pressure tunnel proposition, differential surge '-tank. 

37. Pressure tunnel proposition, power house. 

38. Pressure tunnel proposition, alternative design, mid-river intak . 

39. Proposed canal power development. 

40. Power canal proposition, intake. 

41. Power canal proposition, forebay and power house. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 5 

No. 

42. Compound two-stage proposition, tunnel intake. 

43. Compound two-stage proposition, upper station, without down-river con- 

nections. 

44. Compound two-stage proposition, upper station, with down-river connections. 

45. Compound two-stage proposition, lower station. 

46. Simple two-stage proposition, intake. 

47. Simple two-stage proposition, upper station. 

48. Simple two-stage proposition, lower station. 

49. Proposed combined ship and power canal, Niagara River. 

50. Ship-canal proposition, power plant. 

51. Ship-canal proposition, locks. 

52. Relative elevation of Lake St. Clair for 47 years. 

53. Stage relation between Lake Huron and Lake Erie. 

54. Effect of ice on elevation of Lakes Michigan and Huron. 

55. Effect of ice on fall between Lakes Huron and Erie. 

56. Effect of ice on elevation of Lake Erie. 

57. Effect of ice on elevation of Lake Ontario. 



TABLES. I 

No. Page. 

1. Diversions at St. Marys Falls 64 

2. Water diversions at Niagara Falls 69 

3. Estimated cost of ship canal, La Salle-Lewiston route^ 72 

4. Estimated annual charges for power development, second diversion of 

20,000 cubic feet per second _ . 84 

5. Estimated annual charges for power development, first diversion of 

20,000 cubic feet per second 84 

6. Lowering in feet at mean stage due to present diversions of water 

from the Great Lakes 89 

7. Effect in feet at mean stage of proposed diversions of water from the 

Great Lakes 90 

8. Approximate water diversions at locks, Sault Ste. Marie 108 

9. Discharge of Barge Canal at Lockport, N. Y., under various con- 

ditions 134 

10. Freight moved through Welland Canal in 1914 157 

11. Yearly mean diversion through the Chicago Sanitary Canal as reported 

by the engineers of the sanitary district 176 

12. Typhoid-fever death rate per 100,000 in Niagara Falls, N. Y., 

1903-1917 189 

13. Present operation of Sault Ste. Marie power plants 193 

14. Estimated diversions from the Welland Canal 198 

15. Power developments on south headrace at Lockport, N. Y 200 

16. Power sites on Eighteen-Mile Creek 201 

17. Power installations on the Oswego River 203 

18. Diversion data on Niagara Falls power plants 225 

19. Water-power development on Cornwall Canal 226 

20. Little River water power, approximate present use of water 230 

21. Triangulation stations used in survey of crest line and Rapids, Horse- 

shoe Falls 237 

22. Backwater in Niagara Gorge due to dam at foot of Fosters Flats 239 

23. Daily mean water surface elevations of Niagara River 242 

24. New bench marks established in 1917 in vicinity of Niagara Falls 246 

25. Bench marks along the Niagara River established previous to 1917 247 

26. Rate of recession of Horseshoe Falls 263 

28. Schedule of unit prices adopted 28& 

29. Thickness of concrete lining in tunnels 289 

30. Estimated cost of tunnels per lineal foot 290 

ox. Efficiency of hydraulic plant of Niagara Falls Power Co 298 

• QO Estimate of cost of tailrace tunnel proposition 306- 

*^iate of cost of pressure tunnel proposition 308 

34. EsLiiiia^e of cost of power canal proposition 312 

35. Power output of compound two-stage proposition 318 

36. Estimate of cost of compound two-stage proposition 319 

37. Estimate of cost of simple two-stage proposition 325 



V) TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

No. Page. 

38. Estimate of cost of combined ship and power canal propositions 330 

39. Estimate of cost of Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal, as submitted by 

the Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co . 332 

40. Revised estimate of cost of Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal 334 

41. Comparative summary of estimates of cost of various propositions 339 

42. Estimated annual charges for power development from second diver- 

sion of 20,000 cubic feet per second 344 

43. Estimated annual charges for power development from first diversion 

of 20,000 cubic feet per second 347 

44. Rates of construction interest, showing variation with change in rate 

of absorption of power 348 

45. Water supply of the Great Lakes 367 

46. Lowering of Lake levels by diversion of water through the Chicago 

Drainage Canal 372 

47. Effect of uncompensated diversions upon Lake levels 375 

48. Effect of proposed diversions upon Lake levels 377 

49. Freight statistics of important Great Lakes ports : 386 

50. Recommended draft for Lake freighters, 1917 387 

51. Classification of Lake freighters by size 388 

52. Dimensions of largest freighters of Great Lakes 389 

53. Bulk freight carried in commerce of Great Lakes 389 

54. Estimated Lake freight rates 390 

55. Net registered tonnage entered and cleared from important ports 393 

56. Estimate of value to Chicago of its diversion 398 

57. Comparative cost of steam and hydraulic power 399 

PHOTOGRAPHS. 

No. 

1. Typical bulk freighters of the Great Lakes 112 

2. Old lock at Sault Ste. Marie 112 

3. " State locks " at Sault Ste. Marie 112 

4. Fourth lock at Sault Ste. Marie 112 

5. Weitzel Lock at Sault Ste. Marie : 112 

6. Weitzel, Poe, and third locks at Sault Ste. Marie 112 

7. Canadian lock at Sault Ste. Marie : 112 

8. Illinois & Michigan Canal 112 

9. Fox River Aqueduct, Illinois & Michigan Canal 112 

10. Another view of Fox River Aqueduct 112 

11. Lock No. 2, Illinois & Michigan Canal (abandoned) 112 

12. Rock section, Chicago Drainage Canal . 112 

13. Controlling works, Chicago Drainage Canal ^fl.2 

14. Bear Trap Dam, Chicago Drainage Canal ,,.112 

15. Drum Dams and Lock, Chicago Drainage Canal 112 

16. State Dam No. 1, Des Plaines River 112 

17. Rock section, present Welland Canal 112 

18. Earth cut, present Welland Canal 112 

19. Michigan Central Railroad drawbridge, present Welland Canal 112 

20. Guard gates and Lock No. 25, present Welland Canal 112 

21. Series of locks, present Welland Canal _. 112 

22. Port Dalhousie, Ontario, Lock No. 1, present Welland Canal, on left; 

Lock No. 1, old Welland Canal, on right 112 

23. Sluices admitting water to old Welland Canal , 112 

24. Lock and viaduct, old Welland Canal 112 

25. Junction of Twelvemile Creek and old Welland Canal 112 

26. Black Rock ship lock 112 

27. Black Rock Canal, Ferry Street Bridge 112 

28. Guard Lock No. 72, old Erie Canal, Black Rock 112 

NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 

29. Typical rock section, under construction 112 

30. Typical earth section 112 

31. Canalized section of Oneida River 128 

32. Exterior of hydraulic power house , 128 

33. Interior of hydraulic power house = 128 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 7 

No. Page. 

34. Exterior of gasoline power house 128 

35. Interior of gasoline power house 128 

36. Old and new locks at Lockport, N. Y 128 

37. Guard gates near Pendleton 128 

38. Dam and sluices on Mohawk River at Vischers Ferry 128 

39. Movable dam on Mohawk River at Cranesville 128 

40. Lock, dam, and Taintor gates 128 

41. Lock and movable dam on Mohawk River at Schenectady — r 128 

42. Another view of the same 128 

43. Crescent dam near mouth of Mohawk River 128 

44. Old and new locks at Waterford 128 

45. Bv-pass at Lockport, N. Y 192 

46. Guard Lock No. 72, old Erie Canal. Buffalo, N. Y 192 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

47. St. Lawrence canals, waste weir, and gates at Lock No. 27 192 

48. St. Lawrence canals, Galop Canal above Iroquois, Ontario 192 

49. St. Lawrence canals, Lock No. 24____ 192 

50. Head of Black River Canal, Mich 192 

51. Mouth of Black River, Port Huron, Mich 192 

52. Controlling works and Government power house, Sault Ste. Marie 192 

53. Canal of Michigan Northern Power Co., Sault Ste. Marie 192 

54. Power house of Sanitary District of Chicago, Lockport, 111 192 

55. Sector dam at power house of Sanitary District of Chicago 192 

56. Power house at Joliet, 111., on Des Plaines River 192 

57. Dam on Illinois River at Marseilles, 111— 192 

58. Main power canal at Marseilles, 111 192 

59. Mills and power houses below Marseilles Dam 192 

60. Mills near Lock No. 3, old Welland Canal , 192 

61. Mills near Lock No. 2, old Welland Canal 192 

SURVEYS. 

62. Rod floats used in survey of Niagara Rapids 192 

63. Field parties observing floats from O J 192 

64. Field parties observing floats from O D 192 

65. Chippew r a gauge 192 

66. International Railway intake gauge 192 

67. Suspension Bridge gauge 192 

68. Prospect Point gauge 192 

69. Rock soundings, driving a rod 192 

70. Rock soundings, pulling a rod by machine 192 

71. Rock soundings, pulling a rod with jacks 192 

NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY. 

72. Panorama of Niagara Falls in summer and winter, from Canadian 

side 256 

73. Panorama of Niagara Falls from " Falls View " 256 

74. American Rapids from Goat Island Bridge 256 

75. The same 256 

76. The same 256 

77. The same 256 

78. Canadian Rapids from Goat Island 256 

79. The same 256 

80. The same 256 

81. Canadian Rapids from Canadian side 250 

82. American Falls from Canadian side 256 

S3. The same 256 

84. The same 256 

85. The same 256 

86. The same 256 

87. American Falls from Goat Island 256 

88. The same 256 

89. The same 250 

90. The same 256 



8 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

No. Page. 

91. Horseshoe Falls from Goat Island 256 

92. The same 256 

93. The same 256 

94. The same 256 

95. West end of Horseshoe Falls from Canadian side 256 

96. The same 256 

97. East end of Horseshoe Falls from the " Refectory " 256 

98. The same_ 256 

99. The same 256 

100. East end of Horseshoe Falls from Canadian end 256 

101. The same 256 

102. East end of Horseshoe Falls from Goat Island 256 

103. The same 256 

104. The same 256 

105. Maid of the Mist pool from Michigan Central Railroad bridge 256 

106. Head of Whirlpool Rapids 256 

ik08 T/ \ad of Whirlpool Rapids, looking upstream 256 

1668 w .ame - 256 

109:. :me . 256 

110 ,pool Rapids, looking upstream , 256 

111. The same 256 

112. The same 256 

113. Near lower end of Whirlpool Rapids 256 

114. The Whirlpool and the Lower Rapids from Canadian Cliff 256 

115. Outlet of Whirlpool and head of Lower Rapids 256 

116. The same 1 256 

117. Outlet of Whirlpool looking upstream 256 

118. The same 256 

119. The same 256 

120. Lower Rapids at head of Fosters Flats 256 

121. Lower Rapids abreast Fosters Flats, looking upstream 256 

122. The same i 256 

123. The same 256 

124. Head of Fosters Flats, looking downstream 256 

125. Lower Rapids, foot of Fosters Flats, looking downstream 256 

126. The same 256 

127. The same 256 

128. Lower Rapids, foot of Fosters Flats, looking upstream 256 

129. Foot of Lower Rapids, showing Lower Gorge gauge 256 

130. Panorama of Falls from " Falls View " * 272 

131. American Rapids above Goat Island bridge 272 

132. Canadian Rapids from Goat Island 272 

133. American Falls from Canadian side 272 

134. American Falls from Goat Island 272 

135. Horseshoe Falls from Goat Island 272 

136. West end of Horseshoe Falls from Canadian side 272 

137. East end of Horseshoe Falls from " The Refectory " 272 

138. East end of Horseshoe Falls from Goat Island 272 

139. View from Goat Island in 1885 and to-day, showing old paper mill 272 

140. Map of Niagara Falls, N. Y., in 1853, showing proposed hydraulic 

canal 272 

NIAGAEA FALLS POWER CO., HYDRAULIC PLANT. 

141. Fore bay of station 2, under construction 272 

142. Station 2, under construction 272 

143. Station 2, roof crushed by ice, January, 1904 272 

144. Station 2, and water wasted by the Pettebone-Cataract Co 272 

145. Station 3 and fore bay gatehouse 272 

146. Head of hydraulic canal, Port Day _ 272 

147. Hydraulic canal above Third Street ~ 272 

148. Basin and foot of hydraulic canal 272 

149. End of basin and gatehouse of station 3 272 

150. Station 3 fore bay, under construction 272 

151. Station 3 fore bay 272 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 9 

No. Page. 

152. Station 3 turbine room 304 

153. Station 3 generator room 304 

154. Station 3, under construction 304 

NIAGARA FALLS POWER CO., NIAGARA PLANT. 

155. Main tunnel, under construction 304 

156. Wheel pit of power house No. 2, under construction ._ 304 

157. Later view of same 304 

158. Still later view of same 304 

159. General view of plant 304 

160. Intake canal 304 

161. Power house No. 2 304 

162. Rack room of power house No. 2 304 

163. Turbine in power house No. 2 304 

164. Main tunnel outfall 304 

165. Thrust bearing . „ -' - 

166. Generators in power house No. 1 . . -i 

167. Generator room, power house No. 2 j04 

168. Interior of transformer station 384 

COMPENSATING WORKS. 

169. Compensating works in St. Marys River <_ 384 

170. Another view of same 384 

171. Compensating sluices at Government power house, Sault Ste. Marie 384 

LAKE VESSELS. 

172. Steamer B. F. Jones in the Poe Lock 384 

173. Steamer B. F. Jones in St. Clair River 384 

174. Steamer J. Pierpont Morgan entering Poe Lock 384 

175. Ice-covered package freighter in St. Clair River 384 

176. Passenger steamer Tionesta in St. Clair River 384 

177. Passenger steamer North West in St. Clair River 384 

178. Government survey steamers in Cleveland Harbor 384 

179. Lightship on Lake St. Clair 384 

180. A whaleback, light 384 

181. A whaleback, loaded 384 

182. Excursion steamer Tashmoo in St. Clair River 384 

183. Passing vessels in Detroit River 384 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



War Department, 
Washington, December 7, 1920. 

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a letter from the Chief 
of Engineers, United States Army, of 9th ultimo, together with 
report of Col. J. G. Warren, Corps of Engineers, Division Engineer, 
Lakes Division, dated August 30, 1919, on investigation of water 
diversion from the Great Lakes and Niagara River, including 
navigation, sanitary and power purposes, and the preservation of 
the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids of Niagara River, 
authorized by public resolution No. 8, Sixty-fifth Congress; also re- 
port of the Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors, dated 
August 24, 1920, reviewing the matter. 

Attention is invited to the recommendation, concurred in by the 
Chief of Engineers, that all inclosures and illustrations, except Ap- 
pendix I, be printed; and it is therefore certified that such illustra- 
tions are necessary to a complete understanding of the matter. 
Very respectfully, 

Newton D. Baker, 

Secretary of War, 
The Speaker of the House of Representatives. 

11 



LETTEE OF SUBMITTAL. 



War Department, 
Office of the Chief of Engineers, 

Washington, November P, 1920. 
From : The Chief of Engineers, United States Army. 
To : The Secretary of War. 
Subject : Diversion of water from the Great Lakes. 

1. There is submitted herewith for transmission to Congress, re- 
port dated August 30, 1919, with maps and appendices, by Col. J. G. 
Warren, Corps of Engineers, division engineer, Lakes Division, on 
investigation of water diversion from Great Lakes and Niagara 
River, including navigation, sanitary and power purposes, and the 
preservation of the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids 
of Niagara River, authorized by public resolution No. 8, Sixty- 
fifth Congress, approved June 30, 1917, in the following language : 

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States 
of America in Congress assembled, That public resolution numbered forty -five 
of the Sixty-fourth Congress, approved January 19, 1917, entitled " Joint reso- 
lution authorizing the Secretary of War to issue permits for additional diversion 
of water from the Niagara River," is continued in full force and effect, and 
under the same conditions, restrictions, and limitations, until July 1, 1918 : Pro- 
vided, That the Secretary of War is hereby authorized and directed to make 
a comprehensive and thorough investigation, including all necessary surveys 
and maps, of the entire subject of water diversion from the Great Lakes 
and the Niagara River, including navigation, sanitary and power purposes, 
and the preservation of the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids of 
Niagara River, and to report to Congress thereon at the earliest practicable 
date. To carry out the provisions of this proviso there is hereby appropriated, 
out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of 
$25,000. 

The investigation has involved a great amount of work, and the 
report thereon is a valuable and exhaustive treatment of the subject. 

2. This report has been referred, as required by law, to the Board 
of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors, and attention is invited to its 
report herewith, dated August 24, 1920. The board has reviewed in 
detail and commented upon the several problems involved, and in the 
last few pages sums up its conclusions and recommendations, in which 
I concur, except so far as relates to the diversion to be permitted to be 
made by the Chicago Sanitary District. In respect to this, the trus- 
tees of the district have already been advised that the Chief of En- 
gineers would not recommend to Congress any diversion greater than 
250,000 cubic feet per minute, the limit set in the permit of the Secre- 
tary of War dated January 17, 1903, until the district had worked 
out and presented a suitable and comprehensive plan for treating its 
sewage so as to render it inoffensive and innocuous and at the same 
time reduce to a minimum the quantity of water necessary for its 

13 



14 LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 

dilution and transportation. This office has been informed that the 
sanitary district is now making the necessary studies and that plans 
based upon them will ultimately be presented for the approval of the 
War Department. Decision as to the diversion of the Chicago Sani- 
tary Canal should therefore be deferred. 

3. It is my understanding that the methods proposed by the divi- 
sion engineer and the Board for Rivers and Harbors for utilizing 
the water power of the Niagara River and for preserving the scenic 
beauty of the Falls are type plans merely. They show the results 
which can be secured but are not intended to be detailed or to prevent 
the adoption of any other plans which may appear preferable after 
such further study of the problems as may seem advisable when the 
work is finally authorized to be done. 

4. Attention is particularly invited to the final paragraph recom- 
mending that all inclosures and illustrations, except Appendix I r 
be printed. 

Lansing H. Beach, 

Major General. 



REPORT OF BOARD OF ENGINEERS FOR RIVERS AND HARBORS. 

[Second indorsement.] 

Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors, 

August 2h 1920. 
To the Chief of Engineers, United States Armt : 

1. This is a report by the division engineer of the Lakes division 

made in compliance with the provisions of public resolution No. 8, 

Sixty-fifth Congress, which reads as follows : 

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of 
America in Congress assembled, That public resolution numbered forty-five of 
the Sixty-fourth Congress, approved January 19, 1917, entitled "Joint resolu- 
tion authorizing the Secretary of War to issue permits for additional diversion 
of water from the Niagara River," is continued in full force and effect, and 
under the same conditions, restrictions, and limitations, until July 1, 1918: 
Provided, That the Secretary of War is hereby authorized and directed to 
make a comprehensive and thorough investigation, including all necessary sur- 
veys and maps, of the entire subject of water diversion from the Great Lakes 
and the Niagara River, including navigation, sanitary and power purposes, and 
the preservation of the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids of Niagara 
River, and to report to Congress thereon at the earliest practicable date. To 
carry out the provisions of this proviso, there is hereby appropriated, out of 
any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $25,000. 

2. The report is an exhaustive presentation of the facts regarding 
all existing diversions from the Great Lakes for navigation, for 
sanitation, and for the generation of power and of the effects of such 
diversions upon the levels and navigability of the Great Lakes and 
their connecting waters, as well as upon the scenic beauty of Niagara 
Falls and of the rapids of the Niagara River. In addition, diver- 
sions more or less seriously contemplated for one or more of the above 
three purposes are described and commented upon and measures for 
remedying damage already done, or likely to be done, both to the 
navigable capacity of the Great Lakes system and to the scenic 
beauty of the falls and rapids of the Niagara River are suggested. 

3. The report is the only comprehensive and thorough investiga- 
tion of all these subjects ever made and possesses great value not only 
from the technical, but also from the very full historical presenta- 
tion of the matters with which it deals. 

4. The most important features of the report are discussions of, 
first, the diversion of water from Lake Michigan through the Chi- 
cago Sanitary Canal; second, existing and proposed diversions from 
Lake Erie ; third, present diversions for power purposes from above 
Niagara Falls, possible increases in these diversions, the utilization 
of diverted water to the greatest advantage and the works which will 

15 



16 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

neutralize or compensate for injurious effects of such diversions 
whether upon scenic beauty or upon the navigable capacity of the 
Great Lakes system; fourth, the possibility or advantage of com- 
bining the interests of navigation and of power production in a 
diversion into a navigable canal connecting the waters of Lake Erie 
and Lake Ontario ; and, finally, the provisions of the existing treaty 
regarding boundary waters and suggestions of changes in and addi- 
tions to it necessary to promote the interests of both the United 
States and Canada and to safeguard them more adequately. 

5. In the following review of the report all existing or proposed 
diversions of whatever character from each unit of the Great Lakes 
system will be briefly described when the corresponding unit is under 
consideration, and thus disposed of finally. In the review and dis- 
cussion, the nomenclature of the report of the division engineer is 
adopted, particularly in regard to the various types of plants for 
developing power from the Niagara River. As herein used, a 
" single-stage " water-power development is one in which water is 
conducted in a channel of some kind, whether artificial canal, tunnel, 
or vertical penstock, from the upper level in the Chippawa-Grass 
Island pool, at elevation about 560, to turbines set practically at the 
elevation of the lower Niagara River, about 248 feet above sea level, 
so that the total head due to the difference between the elevation of 
the Niagara River just above the Falls and its elevation at or near 
its mouth, some 310 feet, is developed in a single power house at about 
the latter level. A " two-stage " development is one in which the 
total head is developed in two power houses in series. The " upper 
stage " of a " two-stage " plant is that which corresponds to the head 
due to differences between the elevations of the Chippawa-Grass 
Island and the Maid-of-the-Mist pools, approximately 220 feet, and 
the turbines at this stage are set at the level of the latter pool, about 
345 feet above sea level. The " lower stage " of a " two-stage " de- 
velopment is one in which the remaining portion of the fall of the 
Niagara River, namely, that which includes the Whirlpool and the 
Lower Rapids, and which has a head due to the difference between 
the elevations of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool and of the Niagara River 
at or near Lewiston, or about 90 feet, is developed in turbines set at 
about the latter level. The topographical conditions of the locality 
are such that a tunnel, from 2 to 3 miles long, is a necessary feature 
of this lower stage. The " compound two-stage " plan of the division 
engineer contemplates the development of the energy of a diversion 
of 20,000 cubic feet per second, with an upper stage in which the exist- 
ing head-race canal and power station No. 3 of the Niagara Falls 
Power Co. diverting 10,000 cubic feet per second, are retained and 
augmented by a head-race tunnel, practically parallel to the canal and 
leading to a new power station practically in upstream prolongation 
of station No. 3. Both these stations would discharge into another 
tunnel which would lead the water to the turbines of the lower stage 
in a power house near the river level just above Lewiston. The 
" simple two-stage " plan discussed by the division engineer is one in 
which an entirely new diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second is 
developed by means of two sets of turbines in series, a pressure 
tunnel from near Port Pay on the Chippawa-Grass Island pool con- 
ducting the water to the turbines of the upper stage in a new power 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 17 



» 



house near the level of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, about midway 
between the arched bridge at Niagara Falls and Suspension Bridge. 
These turbines would discharge into a pressure tunnel leading to a 
power station for the lower stage similar to that called for in the 
preceding plan. 

REVIEW OF REPORT OF DIVISION ENGINEER, PARAGRAPHS 6-67, INCLUSIVE. 

6. Diversions from the Great Lakes fall into three classes as con- 
cerns their effects. These classes are (a) those returned to the same 
body or level of water from which they are taken and which there- 
fore do not affect water levels anywhere, and, doing no damage, re- 
quire no limitation ; ( b ) those which are restored to a lower level of 
the Great Lakes system and which reduce depths at and above the 
point of diversion, and all others downstream thereof to, but not in- 
cluding, the body of water into which they discharge; and (c) those 
which are permanently removed from the Great Lakes Basin, and 
lower water levels and do damage at and even upstream from the 
point of diversion, as well as at every downstream locality as far as 
tidewater. 

7. There are no diversions from Lake Superior of sufficient conse- 
quence to justify mention. Small amounts of water are taken for 
the domestic purposes of some of the communities on its shores. Such 
small diversions find their way back into the lake and therefore do 
not influence its level even slightly. 

8. Lake Superior discharges into the St. Marys River, which, as 
is well known, has been improved by both Canada and the United 
States, so that navigation may readily overcome the fall of approxi- 
mately 20 feet which naturally exists there. The United States has 
built four large locks and there is one such lock on the Canadian 
side. In their operation, from 1,000 to 1,500 cubic feet per second 
is diverted during the season of navigation from the river through 
canals which conduct the water from the upper level to the locks, 
This diversion is, of course, necessary for the maintenance of a highly 
important navigation, but it is so small as compared with the dis- 
charge of the river that even though uncompensated, but little effect 
would be produced on the level of Lake Superior and of the river 
above the points of diversion. There are also three diversions from 
the St. Marys River for power development; one of these being in 
Canada and the other two in the United States. The aggregate di- 
version for power purposes is 43,000 cubic feet per second, which 
produces about 54,750 horsepower, as follows : 



Present operation, Sault Ste. Marie power plants. 



Plant. 



United States Government 

Michigan Northern Power Co 

Great Lakes Power Co 

Total, or weighted average 



Water 
used. 



Cubic feet 

per second. 

i 1,030 

30, 000 

12, 000 



43,030 



Power pro- 
duced. 



Horse- 
power. 
750 
35, 000 
19, 000 



54, 750 



Horse- 
power. 



Cubic feet 

per second. 

0.73 

1.17 

1.58 



1.27 



Over-all 
efficiency. 



Per cent. 



34 
54 
73 



59 



Including 500 cubic feet per second wasted. 



27880—21- 



18 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

This diversion is nearly 60 per cent of the average flow of the 
river, which is 75,000 cubic feet per second, but its effects, and those 
of the diversions for navigation, are fully compensated by regulat- 
ing works — a set of Stoney gates above the International Bridge. 
The control afforded by these gates is so complete that in addition 
to the diversions for navigation, 60,000 cubic feet per second may be 
used for power, while Lake Superior is ordinarily held between ele- 
vations 602.1 and 603.6 and its maximum range is restricted to 2.5 
feet. Since 1860 the monthly mean stages of this lake have fluctuated 
between a low of about 600.50 and a high of 604.10, a range of 4.6 
feet. Daily mean stages have, of course, shown a greater range, so 
that the regulating works are obviously beneficial to navigation. The 
advantage of developing all the water power possible is also plain, 
for the locality is a remote one and coal is expensive. The regulat- 
ing works must affect the oscillations of the lakes below, but up to 
the present this effect has been slight and apparently no damage has 
been done to navigation. 

9. In consequence of an act of Congress, one of the power plants 
on the United States side of the boundary was acquired by the United 
States in 1912. It is now operated by the Edison Sault Electric Co., 
under a lease by the Secretary of War, dated June 25, 1912. The 
legal status of this diversion calls for no further comment. The 
other power plant in the United States is that of the Michigan North- 
ern Power Co., which was originally built in 1898-1902, under the 
terms of a permit issued by the Secretary of War, dated December 
12, 1902. Its large diversion, amounting to 30,000 cubic feet per 
second, was the subject of considerable controversy which was finally 
settled by a lease executed by the Secretary of War, dated May 28, 
1914. 

10. Under this lease, the Michigan Northern Power Co. is per- 
mitted to take for a period of 30 years, beginning July 1, 1914, a 
continuous flow of water from St. Marj^s River above the rapids 
not to exceed a maximum daily aggregate at the average rate of 
25,000 cubic feet per second of primary water, with not to exceed 
5,000 feet of secondary water at such times as the level of Lake 
Superior and the flow of St. Marys River will permit, conditioned 
upon certain plant improvements and the construction of remedial 
and compensating works. A later lease, dated September 10, 1918, 
permits the use of an additional 3,000 cubic feet per second of water, 
referred to as excess secondary water, at such time as, in the opinion 
of the lessor, it is available. 

11. A number of diversions for water supply are made from Lake 
Michigan and the city of Milwaukee uses about 1,000 cubic feet per 
second for flushing its harbor, but these are returned to the lake so 
close to the point of taking as to have no effect upon its levels. 
There are no diversions from this lake for navigation, and the only 
really significant diversion from it is that of the Chicago sanitary 
district. This diversion is primarily for sanitation, and the protec- 
tion of the water supply of the city of Chicago, by preventing the 
discharge into Lake Michigan of the raw sewage of Chicago and the 
vicinity, under a plan whereby this sewage is intercepted, diluted, 
and transported into another drainage system, that of the Mississippi 
River, by way of the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers, incidentally 
creating facilities for navigation and for the development of power. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 19 

This purpose is accomplished by reversing the flow of the Chicago 
and Calumet Eivers, naturally tributaries of Lake Michigan, which, 
through this change, become ordinarily parts of the Mississippi 
drainage system. The diversion through the Chicago Sanitary Canal 
averaged 8,800 cubic feet per second in 1917, although some daily 
averages were 10,000 cubic feet per second or more. Of this diver- 
sion, 6,800 cubic feet per second is incidentally used in the develop- 
ment of power, as will be explained later. Such small navigation 
as now exists would be amply served by a diversion of 500 cubic feet 
per second, and twice that amount would be sufficient for the needs 
of the greatest probable commerce of the so-called Lakes to the Gulf 
Waterway. 

12. The Chicago Sanitary Canal diversion proceeds from Lake 
Michigan, whose normal elevation above sea level is about 580 feet, 
by way of the Chicago and Calumet Rivers through cuts excavated 
in the low divides which separate the lake drainage from that of the 
Des Plaines River, the two uniting in an artificial channel whose 
depth is over 24 feet and whose width varies between 160 and 202 
feet. The Chicago River portion of the diversions begins at Robey 
Street in the West Fork of the South Branch, and for a length of 
32.35 miles has practically the full canal dimensions above given. 
This portion of the canal was begun in 1892 and completed in 1900. 
The Calumet River diversion begins at Stoney Creek on the Little 
Calumet River and runs a distance of 16 miles through a shallow 
depression in the divide, called " The Sag," to a point on the main 
channel 3 miles above Lemont, the cut being in the form of a canal, 
which eventually is to be 22 feet deep and 70 to 90 feet wide. The 
main channel or canal is figured for a flow of 10,000 cubic feet per 
second, and the Calumet Canal for an initial flow of 2,000 cubic feet 
per second, to be enlarged ultimately to 4,000 cubic feet per second. 
The latter was begun in 1911 and is now nearly completed. 

13. The Chicago Sanitary Canal was constructed without the sanc- 
tion of Congress, and the only existing authority for this diversion 
is a permit of the Secretary of War, dated January 17, 1903, grant- 
ing permission to divert 350,000 cubic feet per minute, or 5,833 cubic 
feet per second, during the closed season of navigation prior to March 
31, 1#03, and requiring reduction to 250,000 cubic feet per minute, 
or 4,167 cubic feet per second, thereafter. This permit was issued 
on the understanding that it was the intention of the Secretary of 
War to submit all pertinent questions connected with the sanitary 
district of Chicago to Congress. As yet Congress has taken no 
action, but meantime the sanitary district has for years greatly ex- 
ceeded the limits of the permit of January 17, 1903. 

14. In 1908 the Attorney General of the United States caused to 
be filed in the United States Circuit Court, Northern District of 
Illinois, a bill to enjoin the sanitary district of Chicago from con- 
structing the Calumet-Sag Canal, and diverting through it the waters 
of Calumet River or Lake Michigan, thereby reversing the current 
in Calumet River, on the ground that these acts would impede and 
obstruct navigation and lower the level of Lake Michigan, thus im- 
pairing its navigability, all in contravention of section 10 of the river 
and harbor act of March 3, 1899. The real purpose of this suit was 
to assert the paramount authority of the United States over the di- 
version of the Chicago Sanitary Canal, and over all acts such as 



20 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

would tend to injure the navigability or the navigable capacity of 
navigable waters of the United States. Testimony was taken in this 
case for about five years without reaching a decision. On October 
6, 1913, the issue was more specifically raised in another bill filed 
by the Attorney General of the United States, praying that the de- 
fendant be enjoined from diverting more than 4,167 cubic feet per 
second from Lake Michigan through the Chicago River. The two 
suits were consolidated, heard as one, and, though the presentation 
of evidence and arguments of counsel had been completed in 1915, 
a decision had not been rendered at the time of submission of the 
division engineer's report; that is, about 12 years after the original 
bill had been filed. 

15. There can be no doubt that a real need existed at Chicago for 
a remedy for the polluted state of its water supply and of the various 
streams near by that discharged into Lake Michigan. At the time 
the main sanitary' canal was projected the art of sewage purification 
was in its infancy and a project so extensive as that of treating all 
the sewage and trade wastes of a population of over a million people 
had nowhere been seriously considered. 

16. The remedy chosen by Chicago for the polluted state of its 
water supply and of its watercourses was, however, damaging to 
other interests. It is definitely known that the diversion of the 
amount of water authorized to be taken by the terms of the permit 
-of 1903, namely, 4,167 cubic feet per second, at mean stages would 
lower the level of Lakes Michigan and Huron about 0.2 foot, of 
Lakes Erie and Ontario about as much, and of the St. Lawrence 
River at Lock 25 about 0.28 foot. The average diversion for 1917, 
8,800 cubic feet per second, being uncompensated, has lowered the 
level of Lakes Michigan and Huron about 0.43 foot, of Lakes Erie 
and Ontario about 0.41 foot, and of the St. Lawrence River at Lock 
25 about 0.57 foot. Damage, varying in amount with the locality, 
extends from the lower miter sills of the locks at Sault Ste. Marie 
through all the lakes and connecting channels to tide water in the 
lower St. Lawrence River, and its amount increases in the same pro- 
portion as the diversion at Chicago increases. 

17. The dilution plan of the Chicago Sanitary District h^s not 
completely protected its domestic water supply. The uncertainty 
as to the quality of the water arises from the freshets of the Chicago 
and Calumet Rivers, which often exceed the volume of lake water 
diverted through the corresponding channels, the coincident tempo- 
rary reversal of the currents of these rivers causing corresponding 
pollution of the lake. This condition is sure to increase with popu- 
lation and industrial activity unless the amount of the diversion is 
also largely increased, or unless steps are taken for the treatment of 
the sewage and trade wastes now finding their way; into the two 
streams. 

18. The report emphasizes the harm done by the Chicago Sanitary 
Canal in lowering the levels and diminishing the depths available 
for navigation from the lower sills of the locks at Sault Ste. Marie 
clear down to tidewater, but the division engineer feels forced to 
make some concession to the existing status of affairs, and he there- 
fore, with evident reluctance, recommends that the Sanitary District 
of Chicago be authorized to divert not exceeding 10,000^ cubic feet 
per second, conditioned upon supervision of the diversion by the 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 21 

Secretary of War at the expense of the sanitary district, and upon 
the further stipulations that no dangers to navigation shall be caused 
by the diversion, that the district assume responsibility for all dam- 
ages incident to the diversion, that it pay its due share of the cost of 
necessary compensating works, that it agree not to request or make 
any greater diversion, that it pay to the United States a tax or fee 
dependent on the additional amount of power that the diverted water 
could develop in the Niagara and St. Lawrence Eivers, and that it 
secure authority from the State of Illinois for the provision of 
works for sewage disposal other than by dilution and then provide 
such facilities as needed to care for the growth of its population., 

19. While there are small diversions from Lake Huron for domes- 
tic water supplies in Canada and the United States which do not 
affect the level of the lake nor the volume of its discharge, there is 
one diversion from that lake worthy of mention. This is the Black 
River Canal, which extends from a point on the west shore of Lake 
Huron, about 1^ miles north of the foot of the lake, westward about 
1 mile to the Black River. From the canal junction the Black River 
flows 4^ miles southerly through Port Huron to the St. Clair River, 
about 2-J miles below the foot of Lake Huron. The sewage from a 
large part of Port Huron and the wastes from a sulphite pulp mill 
are discharged into the Black River. The canal was constructed by 
the city of Port Huron, without Federal permit, to flush Black River, 
which otherwise would be stagnant and insanitary. The canal has 
a bottom width of 25 feet with side slopes of approximately 1| on 1, 
the average depth is 6 feet, and the average fall about 1J feet. The 
diversion from Lake Huron averages 400 cubic feet per second, and 
lowers the lake about one- fourth inch. Though this diversion pro- 
duces a negligible effect upon navigation, it is important in principle. 
No increase in it should be permitted. 

20. Continuing downstream, except a number of diversions for 
domestic purposes which, as already explained, do not produce any 
hurtful effects, there are no diversions, existing or proposed, from 
the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and the Detroit River, though 
there have been improvements of shoals in all three which might have 
tended to enlarge their capacity for discharge. Considering these 
three bodies of water as a unit, it may be said that its discharge 
capacity affects the levels of the two lakes above and of the St. 
Marys River to the lower lock sills. So far as can be judged, the 
works of channel improvement have been planned so as to give it 
liberal facilities for navigation, while at the same time the depths of 
the waterways and harbors above the improved localities have, by 
the exercise of proper precautions, been protected from damage, and 
there has been no effect of any kind produced below the mouth of 
the Detroit River. 

21. There are numerous diversions from Lake Erie for domestic 
purposes, and these produce no hurtful effects either on Lake Erie 
or anywhere else. As already stated, the Chicago diversion has 
lowered Lake Erie about 0.41 foot, and there are two other diver- 
sions from the lake which have also reduced its levels. In addition, 
some of the diversions from the Niagara River have, as will be ex- 
plained later, also lowered this lake. 

22. The detrimental diversions from Lake Erie itself are the 
Welland Canal in Canada and the Black Rock Canal in New York. 



22 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 



23. The Welland Canal is 26 1 miles long, and extends from Lake 
Erie at Port Colborne, northward to Lake Ontario at Port Dalhousie. 
Its total drop from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario averages 326.35 feet, 
overcome by 25 lift locks and one guard lock. The locks are 270 
feet long, 45 feet wide, and have 14 feet depth on the miter sills. 
The volume diverted from Lake, Erie is approximately 4,500 cubic 
feet per second, and in addition it receives about 40 cubic feet per 
second from the Grand River, naturally a tributary of Lake Erie. 
Of these diversions, approximately 900 cubic feet per second is used 
for navigation, including lockage, leakage, and waste. Of the re- 
mainder, a very small amount is used for sanitary purposes, and the 
balance, about 3,300 cubic feet per second, for power development. 
At De Cew Falls there is a high head hydroelectric plant of good 
efficiency, owned by the Hamilton Cataract Power, Light & Traction 
Co., which has leases for the continuous use of 1,160 cubic feet per 
second, but appears to use about 2,100. The plant has a capacity of 
over 50,000 horsepower. The remainder of the water is used ineffi- 
ciently at a large number of small developments having a combined 
capacity not exceeding 15,000 horsepower. There has been very little, 
if any, increase of diversion since May 31, 1910, the date on which 
the boundary waters treaty was proclaimed. 

24. This canal is now being enlarged, partially along a new route. 
It is to have a total length of 25 miles, and the difference of eleva- 
tion of Lakes Erie and Ontario is to be overcome by seven locks, each 
having a lift of 46^ feet. The locks are to be 800 feet long by 80 feet 
wide in the clear, with 30 feet of water over the miter sills at ex- 
treme low stages in the lakes. The canal will have a bottom width 
of 200 feet, and for the present will be excavated to a depth of 25 
feet only, though all structures will be sunk to the 30-foot depth, so 
that the canal can be deepened at any future date by dredging the 
reaches. Its operation is estimated to require a diversion of about 
2,000 cubic feet per second, and the total diversion of the Welland 
Canal will then be about 5,300 cubic feet per second. 

25. The Black Rock Canal is at Buffalo, N. Y., where it provides a 
waterway, with a modern lock adequate for the largest lake freighters, 
around the swift, shallow rapids at the head of Niagara River. The 
canal is formed by a wall or dike known as Bird Island Pier, extend- 
ing from a point opposite the foot of Maryland Street, Buffalo, to 
the head of Squaw Island, about 2J miles, and by the passage between 
Squaw Island and the main shore. Within this area, which is 3^ 
miles long and from 220 to 1,400 feet wide, is a dredged channel 21 
feet deep and at least 200 feet wide. The Black Rock Lock has a 
usable length of 625 feet, usable width of 68 feet, and a depth of 22 
feet on the miter sills at low stage. The diversion into the canal from 
Lake Erie is estimated to be about 700 cubic feet per second, of which 
250 feet leaks back into the Niagara River through the dike, 400 is 
delivered into the head of the old Erie Canal, and the remainder is. 
consumed in lockage. In the early days of the canal water power 
was developed at Black Rock, but this was discontinued many years 
ago. The 400 cubic feet per second now discharged into the Erie 
Canal partially flushes the sewage discharged into the abandoned 
portion of the canal between Buffalo and Tonawanda. 

26. The Welland Canal affords the only navigable connection be- 
tween Lakes Erie and Ontario and serves a traffic of 4,000,000 to 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 23 

5,000,000 tons annually, of which about 10 per cent pertains to the 
United States. The Black Rock Canal affords a safe route for an im- 
portant and growing tonnage and incidentally it gives access to the 
New York Barge Canal. Evidently the relatively small portions of 
these diversions that are used for navigation are necessary and valu- 
able, and the treaty explicitly recognizes this fact by interposing no 
limitations upon diversions for navigation. The diversion for power 
purposes via the Welland Canal should, however, not be increased. 

27. Both of these diversions lower Lake Erie and certain waters 
above and below it. For convenience, Tables 47 and 48, showing the 
effects of these and other existing and proposed diversions not only 
on Lake Erie, but on all other portions of the Great Lakes system 
are here reproduced, rendering needless further discussion of lower- 
ing effects, present and prospective. 



Table No. 47.- 



-Effect in feet of uncompensated diversions of water from the 
Great Lakes. 





Amount 
in cubic 
feet per 
second. 


Michigan-Huron. 


St. Clair. 


Erie. 


Diversion. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Lbw. 


Mean. 


High. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High. 




8,800 

4,500 

700 

1,000 

50,885 


0.44 
.02 

0) 
C 1 ) 

.01 


0.43 
.03 
0) 
( x ) 
.01 


0.42 
.04 
C 1 ) 


0.35 
.08 
.01 


0.35 
.09 
.01 

C 1 ) 
.05 


0.36 
.10 
.02 

C 1 ) 

06 


0.43 
.22 
.03 

.01 
.10 


0.41 

.21 
.03 
,01 
.10 


0.38 


Welland Canal 


.20 


Black Rock Ship Canal 


.03 




( x ) C 1 ) 

.02 .03 


.01 
.11 










.47 


.47 


.48 .47 


.50 


.54 


.79 


.76 


.73 








Diversion. 


Amount 
in cubic 
feet per 
second. 


Niagara River 
at Chippewa. 


Ontario. 


St. Lawrence 

River at Lock 

No. 25. 




Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High 




8,800 

4.500 

'700 

1,000 

50, 885 


0.24 
.12 


0.23 
.12 


0.21 
.11 


0.44 


0.42 


0.39 


0.65 


0.62 


0.60 


Welland Canal 


















New York State Barge Canal 


.03 
.63 


.03 

.60 


.02 
.57 








































Total lowering 




1.02 


.98 


.91 


.44 


.42 


.39 


.65 


.62 


.60 











1 Inappreciable. 

Lake Ontario has been raised about 0.5G foot by the construction of the Gut 
Dam, which is 50 per cent more than the lowering caused by diversions at 
Chicago. 

Stages of the lakes referred to in this table. 





Michigan- 
Huron. 


Erie. 


Ontario. 




579.6 
581.1 
582.6 


570.8 
572.3 
573. 8 


244.5 


Mean 


246.0 


High 


247.5 











24. DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 



Table No. 48. — Effect in feet at mean stage of proposed diversions from the 

Great Lakes. 



Diversion. 


Proposed 
increase. 


Lakes 
Michigan- 
Huron. 


Lake St. 
Clair. 


Lake 
Erie. 


Niagara 
River at 
Chip- 
pewa. 


Lake 
Ontario. 


St. Law- 
rence 
River at 
Lock 25. 


Chicago Sanitary Canal 


5,200 

1.000 

700 

48,000 


0.25 
.01 


0.21 

.02 


0.23 
.05 
.01 
.22 


0.13 
.03 
.02 

1.25 


0.24 


\ 

0.37 


Welland Canal 




New York State Barge Canal. . . 
Niagara Falls power 






.03 


.10 












Total effect of proposed 
increases 




.29 
.47 


.33 

.59 


.51 
.76 


1.43 

.98 


.24 

.42 


.37 


Total effect of present diversions. 




.62 








Sum 




.76 


.83 


1.27 


2.41 


.66 


.99 









From these tables may be seen the lowering produced by these 
two diversions, the damage extending as far up as the lower sills of 
the Soo Locks and Lake Michigan and as far down as the Lower 
Rapids of the Niagara River. 

28. A private company has for some time been proposing* to con- 
struct between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario a waterway known as the 
Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal, as a combined ship, sanitary, and 
power channel. The proposed canal would start from a new harbor 
south of Lackawanna, N. Y., on Lake Erie, terminate at Olcott, on 
Lake Ontario, and would have a length of 40 miles. At the east 
end of the proposed harbor in Lake Erie there would be a lock to 
lower vessels about 8 feet into the head of the canal. The route 
then runs along the eastern outskirts of Buffalo, through Hamburg, 
West Seneca, Cheektowaga, and Amherst Townships, crossing the 
New York State Barge Canal at grade in Pendleton Township. 
Passing through the west edge of Lockport Township it descends 
from the Niagara escarpment just west of " Lockport Gulf '■ by 
means of a pair of balanced lift locks, which would afford access to 
the " Ontario Plain," elevation about 351, the drop therefore being 
209 feet. Another pair of balanced locks would overcome the re- 
maining drop of 104 feet to the level of Lake Ontario near the 
mouth of Eighteen Mile Creek. It is proposed to divert through 
the canal 26,000 cubic feet per second, being the maximum amount 
allowed by the treaty with Great Britain for power with 6,000 feet 
additional for sanitation. This canal would lower Lake Erie an 
average of 1.18 feet, interrupt 83 railroad, electric railway and high- 
way lines, and endanger the New York Barge Canal. The plan of- 
fers no advantages for either navigation or power, it is not regarded 
as economical or desirable for sanitary purposes, and construction 
is not recommended. 

29. In leaving Lake Erie, the Niagara River falls with relative 
rapidity, the drop in the distance of 4 miles to the foot of Squaw 
Island being some 5.1 feet. From this point to a mile above the 
Welland River, a distance of about IT miles, the fall is 4.8 feet, and 
then there follows a level pool called the Chippawa-Grass Island 
pool, about 2 miles long, whose average elevation above sea level is 
563 feet. Below this pool are the cascades and rapids, which de- 
scend 50 to 55 feet, and lead to the two falls, the Horseshoe and the 
American, which drop, respectively, 162 and 167 feet into the Maid- 
of-the-Mist pool, whose average elevation is 343 feet, the difference 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 25 

between the two pools thus being 220 feet." The Maicl-of-the-Mist 
pool leads into the Whirlpool Rapids and the Lower Rapids with a 
combined fall of about 95 feet. The Lower Rapids terminate in the 
river near Lewiston, where the level is substantially that of Lake 
Ontario, average elevation about 245 feet above the sea. The only 
diversions now made from the Niagara River are above the Falls. 
Three are in the United States, three in Canada, and a fourth in 
Canada is in course of completion. 

30. In the United States the diversion from the Niagara River 
furthest upstream is that of the New York State Barge Canal. It 
provides a waterway 12 feet deep, and not less than 94 feet wide, 
except at locks, from Buffalo on Lake Erie to the Hudson River at 
TTaterford, and thence down the Hudson to New York City. The 
Champlain branch from Waterford to Lake Champlain is of like 
dimensions ; as are also the short lateral branches at Rochester and 
Syracuse ; the Oswego branch, connecting the main canal with Lake 
Ontario at Oswego; and the Cayuga and Seneca Canal, connecting 
the main canal with Cayuga and Seneca Lakes. It is 353.1 miles 
from Buffalo to Troy via the canal, and 153 miles from Troy to 
the Battery at New York City, or 506.1 miles from Buffalo to New 
York. The sole water supply for the western: end to a point east 
of Rochester is obtained from the Niagara River at Tonawanda. 
The canal system was opened at the western end in midsummer of 
1918. To date it is believed that the diversion has been somewhat 
less than the average amount assumed to be required ultimately, 
namely, 1,237 cubic feet per second. A portion of the water may 
be and is used for power development at Lockport, and to a smaller 
extent elsewhere along the canal, although this is a secondary use, 
the same water being required for navigation also. It is interest- 
ing to note that the barge canal causes a diversion into the Great 
Lakes Basin of about 50 cubic feet per second from the Mohawk 
River watershed, and another of about 35 cubic feet per second from 
the eastern headwaters of the Susquehanna River. 

31. In addition to the diversion for navigation usos, there is now 
being diverted through the New York State Bar*e Canal from 
Niagara River approximately 500 cubic feet per second for power 
development at Lockport and along Eighteen Mile Creek. The 
quantity of water required for navigation, while figured to average 
1,237 cubic feet per second, may, with increasing use of the canal, 
become considerably greater. The total developabl 3 head at Lock- 
port and Eighteen Mile Creek is stated to be 286.5 feet. At Lock- 
port there are three conduits or channels through which water may be 
by-passed around the flight of locks, from the upper level to the lower 
level of the barge canal. One supplies the plant belonging to the 
State, which is used for furnishing electric energy for lighting and 
operating the locks. The other two belong to thr Hydraulic Race 
Co., the north tunnel producing 570 horsepower w"th 200 cubic feet 
per second under 50 feet of head, and the south headrace 3,078 horse- 
power with 773 cubic feet per second. At various spillways of the 
barge canal, power has been developed, partly from the spill and 
partly from the small streams passing under the canal in culverts. 
Along Eighteen Mile Creek there are a number of power plants, 
having a present total development of 4,694 horsepower, with 3,950 
additional horsepower practicable. 



26 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

32. The two remaining diversions in the United States are at or 
near Port Day, the upper one through the canal and power houses 
of the original Niagara Falls Power Co., the lower through the 
canal of the former Hydraulic Power Co. These companies are now 
combined as a single corporation under the name of Niagara Falls 
Power Co., and together, at the time of the report, they were divert- 
ing about 17,300 cubic feet per second from the Chippawa-Grass 
Island pool, exclusively for power purposes, generating an average 
of 245,000 horsepower. 

33. In Canada at the same time, the three diversions mentioned 
above were taking about 33,300 cubic feet per second, exclusively for 
power purposes, and producing about 388,600 horsepower. Of the 
total diversion in Canada, the equivalent of about 6,000 cubic feet per 
second was being taken from the Chippawa-Grass Island pool and 
all the rest came from below the first cascade. 

34. On the New York side the Hydraulic Canal was being enlarged 
so as to permit the diversion of 11,000 cubic feet per second, or more, 
without undue loss of head, and on the Canadian side the Hydro- 
Electric Commission was constructing a new power plant for the 
development of the total fall between the Chippawa-Grass Island 
pool and the lower river at Queenston, by means of an enlargement 
of the Welland River (Chippawa Creek) for a distance of 3.6 miles 
by dredging it to a depth of 25 to 30 feet and a width of 200 feet. 
From the upper end of this dredged section of the Welland River, the 
plan includes a canal about 9 miles long, 48 feet wide, and 30 to 35 
feet deep, extending to a forebay and power house at Queenston, 
where a net head of 304 feet is to be developed. The works are de- 
signed for a flow of 10,000 cubic feet per second, which can be taken 
only by cutting down the total diversion now being made by the 
Canadian power plants at Niagara or by changing the existing treaty 
limits. 

35. The period from 1890 to 1906 was one of great activity in power 
development at Niagara Falls. The diversions then contemplated by 
various companies amounted to a very considerable portion of the 
whole flow of the river, and at first this aroused no opposition. Event- 
ually, however, it came to be believed that unrestricted diversion of 
the water of the Falls might injure their scenic beauty, and wide- 
spread agitation arose to prevent such an occurrence. At the request 
of Congress the International Waterway Commission made an in- 
vestigation and recommended that the diversions be limited by legis- 
lation or treaty. On June 29, 1906, the Burton Act was passed, and 
limited diversions on the American side by the then existing users to 
15,600 cubic feet per second, with the provision that further permits 
might be issued for additional diversions to such amount, if any, as 
should not injure the river as a navigable stream, or as a boundary 
stream, nor the scenic grandeur of Niagara Falls. This act expired 
by limitation on March 4, 1913. On May 5, 1910, there came into 
effect through the exchange of ratifications between the United States 
and Great Britain a treaty regarding the boundary waters of the 
United States and Canada. Article V of this treaty contains the 
following : 

So long as this treaty shall remain in force no diversion of the waters of the 
Niagara River above the Falls from the natural course and stream thereof 
shall be permitted except for the purpose and to the extent hereinafter provided. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 27 

The United States may authorize and permit the diversion within the State 
of New York of the waters of the said river above the Falls of Niagara for 
power purposes not exceeding in the aggregate a daily diversion at the rate of 
20,000 cubic feet of water per second. 

The United Kingdom, by the Dominion of Canada or the Province of Ontario, 
may authorize and permit the diversion within the Province of Ontario of the 
waters of said river above the Falls of Niagara for power purposes not exceed- 
ing in the aggregate a daily diversion at the rate of 36,000 cubic feet of water 
per second. 

The prohibitions of this article shall not apply to the diversions of water for 
sanitary or domestic purposes or for the service of canals for the purposes of 
navigation. 

While this article set the limit for diversions in the United States 
at 20,000 cubic feet per second until the close of 1915, the limits of the 
Burton Act were observed, 8,600 cubic feet per second being allowed 
the Niagara Falls Power Co., 6,500 cubic feet per second going to the 
Hydraulic Power Co., and 500 cubic feet per second to the Hydraulic 
Eace Co. at Lockport. Due to the urgent needs of war industries at 
Niagara Falls and Buffalo, toward the close of 1915 and in 1916 and 
1917, the two power companies at Niagara Falls were, step by step, 
authorized to increase the amounts of water diverted by them, and 
finally were permitted to use the full 19,500 cubic feet per second 
available under the treaty. 

36. The diversions by power companies at Niagara Falls as reported 
by the division engineer are shown by the following table: 

Water diversion from Niagara River at Niagara Falls. 

United States: Cubic feet 

Niagara Falls Power Co. — per second. 

Niagara plant 9, 450 

Hydraulic plant 7, 840 

Pettebone Cataract Paper Co 270 

17, 560 

Canada: 

Hydroelectric Power Commission of Ontario, Ontario Power Co. plant. . . 11, 200 

Toronto Power Co , 12, 400 

Canadian Niagara Power Co 9, 600 

International Ry. Co „ 125 

33, 325 
Grand total 50, 885 

As previously stated, the Niagara Falls Power Co. was making an 
addition to its hydraulic station No. 3, which, when completed, would 
bring its total diversion up to 19,500 cubic feet per second, with ca- 
pacity for using at least 2,000 cubic feet per second more, and the 
Hydroelectric Power Commission of Ontario had under construc- 
tion an extension of the Ontario Power Co. plant, which will increase 
its diversion to about 13,300 cubic feet per second. The commission 
was also constructing a new plant to utilize a diversion of 10,000 
cubic feet of water per second under a head of 300 feet. All the 
existing plants at Niagara generate power under heads of 219 feet or 
less. The gross head and power output of the several plants are 
shown by the following table : 



28 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 
Diversion data on Niagara Falls power plants. 



Canadian Niagara Power Co 

Ontario Power Co 

Toronto Power Co 

International Ry. Co 

Hydroelectric power commission 

Niagara Falls Power Co 

Hydraulic Power Co 

International Paper Co 

Pettebonne-Cataract Paper Co 

Cataract Hotel 



Diver- 
sion. 



Cubicfeet 

per sec. 

9,600 

11, 200 

12, 400 

125 

10, 000 

9,450 

7,840 



271 



Power 
output. 



Horse- 
power. 
100, 000 
163, 000 
125, 000 
570 
294, 000 
100, 000 
145, 000 



2,000 



Gross 
head. 



Feet. 

173 

215 

183 

91 

313 

219 

219 

219 

93 

24 



Horse- 
power 
per cubic 
feet per 
second. 



10.4 
14.6 
10.1 
4.6 
29.4 
10.6 
18.5 



7.4 



Overall 
efficiency. 



Per cent. 
53 
60 
49 

45 
85 
43 

2 75 



3 70 



1 Now under construction. 

2 The Hydraulic Power Co. has three types of machines with widely different overall efficiencies, as fol- 
lows: Station 2, 57 per cent; direct-current units in station 3, 77 per cent; alternating-current units in sta- 
tion 3, 81 per cent. 

3 Gross head taken at mouth of outfall. 

37. By careful observation made during previous investigations 
at Niagara Falls, it has been found that diversions above them may 
affect the navigable capacity of the Niagara River, and the level of 
Lake Erie, and the waters above it, or they may affect only the 
scenic beauty of the Falls, including the rapids above and below, 
or injury may be done to both navigation and scenic beauty. The 
first cascade is a rock barrier with a clear, vertical drop of from 5 
to 10 feet. It is thus a free overfall weir, and therefore the existing 
diversion below it in Canada of about 27,000 cubic feet per second 
produces no effect on the river above. The sole effect is to diminish 
the flow of the Canadian Rapids and of the Horseshoe Falls, thereby 
helping to expose more of the crest at each end, undoubtedly a very 
serious injury to the harmony and beauty of the spectacle, while 
only slightly, if at all, affecting the rapids above the Falls. Except 
the small diversion of the barge canal, all the existing Canadian and 
American diversions from the Niagara River discharge into the head 
of the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, and therefore produce no effect of 
any kind below their outlets. 

38. Diversions from the Chippawa-Grass Island pool damage the 
scenic beauty of the Falls in precisely the same manner as do the 
diversions below the cascades, and additional similar damage is done 
by the diversions at Chicago, and through the Welland Canal, the 
total of all these diversions being at present about 66,000 cubic feet 
per second. 

39. The division engineer presents photographs to show that the 
diversions for power affect the appearance of the American and 
Canadian Rapids and the American and Horseshoe Falls, but not 
of the Whirlpool Rapids or of the Lower Rapids. One set shows 
conditions at extremely high stage, one at about mean stage, and 
one a little below mean stage. Prior to the submission of the main 
report there had been no opportunity fon obtaining views at ex- 
tremely low stage. Subsequently, on April 22, 1920, an unusually 
low stage of Lake Erie occurred, and it became possible to obtain 
a set of views of the Falls with a discharge of only about 135,000 
cubic feet per second. These views accompany the supplemental re- 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 29 

port dated May 19, 1920, and show the detrimental effects of low 
Lake Erie stages, and correspondingly low discharges on the scenic 
beauty of the Falls in their natural condition. The effects of stage 
upon the scenic beauty of the Falls and the rapids above and below 
are summarized in the report as follows : 

1. The American Rapids are not much affected by stage, but look best with 
a moderately large flow. 

2. The Canadian Rapids are very little affected by stage, except the north- 
west corner, which require an extremely high stage to cover the shoal there. 

3. The American Falls look best at high stage. 

4. The " notch " of the Horseshoe Falls is of small scenic value at any stage. 
At low stages it is more often visible because there is then less mist. 

5. The ends of the Horseshoe Falls look very poor at low stage, and poor 
enough at the ordinary conditions now prevailing. At very high stages they 
are marvelously improved. 

6. The Maid-of-the-Mist Pool and the Whirlpool derive their beauty primarily 
from the gorge, not the river, and are not affected by change of stage. 

7. The Whirlpool Rapids and Lower Rapids are at their best at a compara- 
tively low stage. As the flow increases much of their attraction is lost. 

40. The various power companies at Niagara now divert over 50,- 
000 cubic feet per second around the Falls and into the Maid-of-the- 
Mist pool. In addition, the New York State Barge Canal, the Wet- 
land Canal, and the Chicago Drainage Canal ^are taking some 12,000 
or 13.000 cubic feet per second which would otherwise flow over 
the Falls and through the Gorge. Tn the near future, when the new 
Welland Canal is put in operation and the plants now under con- 
struction at the Falls are finished, the total diversion affecting the 
Falls will be nearly 70,000 cubic feet per second. The effect on Horse- 
shoe Falls of the existing diversions will be seen from an examina- 
tion of photographs Nos. 89 and 99, the former taken with a river 
discharge of 212,000 cubic feet per second and the latter with a dis- 
charge of 274,000 cubic feet per second. It seems clear that the scenic 
beauty of Niagara Falls has been appreciably damaged both by the 
recession of the apex of the Horseshoe Falls, which is proceeding at 
a rate of about 4 to 6 feet a year, and by the diversion of water for 
power and other purposes. At the present time there flows over the 
central 600 feet of the Horseshoe Falls a volume of approximately 
80,000 cubic feet per second, which not only is entirely wasted in that 
it creates neither scenery nor power, but which is actually the cause 
of destructive erosion producing the recession referred to. If means 
were adopted to distribute the flow evenly over the Falls, a much 
greater diversion than the present could be allowed without injury 
to the scenic effects. 

41. The remedial works proposed to improve scenic conditions at 
Niagara Falls by the division engineer contemplate the following: 
That the high Canadian end of the Falls and the shoal south of it 
should be cut down by excavation made in cofferdams ; that the high 
places near Terrapin Point and to the south should be similarly ex- 
cavated in another cofferdam; that to distribute the flow more uni- 
formly a submerged weir, curved in plan, should be built across thfl 
central part of the rapids a short distance upstream from the " notch " 
of the Horseshoe Falls; and that the American channel should be 
given a flow of 12,000 cubic feet per second by means of a submerged 
compensating dike extending from Goat Island to Chippawa. It is 
believed by the division engineer that the cost of remedial works 
should be equally divided between the United States and Canada. 



30 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

42. If these works are constructed, the division engineer believes 
that then a considerable addition to diversions from above the Falls 
is not only permissible but desirable. At present, the greatest detri- 
ment to the beauty of the Horseshoe is the prevailing mist, and the 
constant recession of its crest is an ever-present and growing menace 
not only to the appearance of the Horseshoe but also to the perman- 
ence of the water supply of at least one of the power companies. 
The greatest volume that can be taken consistent with maximum at- 
tainable scenic beauty is that which will reduce the obstructive mist 
to a minimum while at the same time insuring adequate ice discharge 
capacity. With the flow approximately uniformly distributed over 
the crest of the Horseshoe, this maximum diversion from the Niagara 
River above the Falls is put at about 80,000 cubic feet per second. 

43. The table in paragraph 36 shows the very great difference that 
exists between the efficiencies of the various power plants at Niagara 
Falls, the range being between 43 and 75 per cent, while 83 per cent 
is predicted for the Chippawa-Queenston development of the Hydro- 
electric Power Commission. The efficiencies stated for the existing 
power stations relate only to the head actually developed, 220 feet 
more or less, and therefore ignore the now undeveloped head of 90 
feet or more. To this extent, these efficiencies are not properly com- 
parable with that predicted for the Chippawa-Queenston develop- 
ment. In any event, the importance to society of developing the 
greatest possible amount of power from the volume of water per- 
mitted to be diverted is evident and the division engineer lays down 
the rule that future developments should have an overall efficiency 
of more than 80 per cent, and produce over 20 horsepower per cubic 
foot per second if they discharge into the Maid-of-the-Mist pool and 
over 29 horsepower if the discharge is into the river near Lewiston. 
These figures may well be contrasted with the present development 
of 635,570 horsepower, with a diversion of over 50,000 cubic feet per 
second and an average of only 12.5 horsepower per cubic foot per 
second. Each additional horsepower developed by these diversions 
is when continuously used worth at least $30 annually to a consumer 
who would otherwise be forced to use steam power. The greater the 
efficiency of development the cheaper the power may be sold. 

44. Diversions from the Chippawa-Grass Island pool, by lowering 
the pool itself and increasing the slope between it and the upper 
river, also lower Lake Erie and the waters above it. The three diver- 
sions from the Chippawa-Grass Island pool, consisting of about 
6,000 cubic feet per second in Canada and 17,000 cubic feet per second 
in New York, a total of 23,000 cubic feet per second, lower the pool 
about 0.6 foot and increase the discharge from Lake Erie by about 
one-tenth of the amount of this diversion, thereby lowering that lake 
about one-tenth foot. The small diversion for navigation and power 
through the barge canal is also made from the Chippawa-Grass 
Island pool and has proportionately a similar effect in lowering the 
pool and Lake Erie. The amount by which the various portions of 
the Great Lakes are affected is shown in Table 47. 

45. The diversions from the Niagara River caitse diminished depth 
in many harbors and in the connecting channels, which limit the 
draft to which thei bulk freighters of the Great Lakes may load. 
Using data based upon conditions existing at the time of his report, 
the division engineer figures that each tenth of a foot of draft cor- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM OREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 31 

is to freight earnings of £44.57 per trip. With an average of 
25 trips per season, he estimates that the fleet of large bulk freighters 
plying Lake Erie and the waters above k annually for 

eac tenth foot reduction in permissible draft, while the corre- 

spond: : . for the smaller the Welland and St. Law- 

rence Canals is about £70.000. The total loss in both trades due to 
all ex. is estimated to have be in 1917. 

40. The plan of the distributing weir ar. r work for remedy- 

ing the damage already done to the Hoi e and for improving its 

appearance has already be 'Icientiy described. The detrimental 

effect upon navigation of dive a from the Niagara River is i 

cptible of being remedied by appropriately designed and located 

,rks of simple and relatively u e character. 

47. The division engineer proposes to restore depths available i 
navigation by the submerged weir near the foot of the Chippa 

Island pool, and by its of submerged 

head of the Niagara River, the other near the head of the St. Clair 
River, to raise the levels of Lakes Erie, Huron. Michigan, and t. 
connecting and tributary waters. The effect would be to restore the 
waters above 1 to the levels they would have had b any 

diversions made. After their completion, thes » will • 

charge through all their outlets the same quantities of water that 
they formerly discharged when the same stage naturally prevailed. 
In other words, compensation will then have been made for damage 
done, but the variations in lake stages and dischar^ I go on as 

48. A plan for raising the levels of Lake Erie and of t; tem 
above it so as to afford greater depths for navigation was presented 
by the Leep Waterways Board in its report of June 30, 1900. and 
provided for the regulation of Lake Erie between the lV "74.2 
and 574.8, thereby raising the mean level between 2 and 3 feet. Lake 
.St. Clair would, it was estimated, be raised about three-fourths and 
Lake Huron one-third as much. These works consisted of a length 
of 2,900 feet of submerged weir in two sections and a series of 
sluiceways, 80 feet wide and 23 feet deep, provided with Stoney 
gates. They would compensate for the lowering effects of diver- 
sions considerably greater than now exist. The division engineer 
points out certain objections to this plan, which are hereafter dis- 
cussed. 

49. A second plan, proposed by the International Waterways Com- 
mission in 1913, consisted of a long fixed weir from above the mouth 
of Wei land River to Gill Creek, raising the Chippawa-Grass Island 
pool 3 feet and Lake Erie about 4f inches. This plan would afford 
incomplete compensation for existing diversions. Another plan for 
intermittent regulation to control discharge and to furnish better 
navigation during the open season has been presented to the board 
by the sanitary district of Chicago, and is here described simply to 
render the discussion more complete, it contemplates the construc- 
tion of a longitudinal division wall in the Niagara River nearly a 
mile below the site of the works planned by the Deep Waterv. 
Board, and about 2 miles below the main entrance to Buffalo Har- 
bor. Here the river is about 1,800 feet wide. The wall will divide 
it into two channels, respectively, 800 and 1,000 feet wide. The nar- 
rower or American channel is to be used for regulation, the wider 



32 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

channel to remain open. The gates proposed are daring in design, 
being removable, ship -like caissons about 200 feet long with butterfly 
valves, for which emplacements or anchorages are provided in the 
bed of the river. Four such gates are proposed to be floated to place 
and anchored in May and removed in December. In place, with all 
valves closed, they are figured to reduce the discharge about 40,000 
cubic feet per second. The function of these works is stated by their 
designer to be as follows : 

First. The creation of a higher mean Lake Erie level of about 13 inches over 
the level which would obtain during the continuous diversion of 10,000 cubic 
second-feet at Chicago. 

Second. The negative function of maintaining a substantially unimpaired 
outflow capacity for the Niagara River for water and ice during the winter 
season, and at times when the lake tends to crest at elevations approaching 
574 and flood heights need to be avoided. 

Third. The throttling, when desirable, of perhaps 40,000 cubic feet per second 
when the supply warrants the saving of water for later release to equalize the 
flow. 

Fourth. The ability to release during certain hours of the day a volume of 
30,000 cubic second-feet of impounded water. 

It will be observed that this plan would raise Lake Erie consider- 
ably more than the amount it is lowered by the existing diversion at 
Chicago and by all other diversions now made, and that liberal 
margin would be left for an increase in diversions. 

50. Contingent upon the construction of the remedial and com- 
pensating works proposed by him, the division engineer believes that 
a total of 80,000 cubic feet per second may be diverted from above 
the Falls, which should be equally divided between Canada and the 
United States, and that of this total 40,000 cubic feet per second 
should be returned to the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, this latter condition 
being for the protection of the scenic beauty and ice discharging 
capacity of the river below the Falls. 

51. The report furnishes an extended discussion of the details and 
merits of the existing power plants at Niagara Falls and of the best — 
that is, the most economical or efficient — plan for utilizing the exist- 
ing diversion and any additional one, including the advisability of 
joint use for navigation and power production. 

52. As already mentioned, there are at present three American 
diversions from the Niagara River for power purposes. These in- 
clude a diversion of 500 cubic feet per second through Tonawanda 
Creek and the New York State Barge Canal for use by power plants 
at Lockport, N. Y. This is about a century old and therefore was in 
existence at the time cognizance was first taken by the United States 
of the harmful possibilities of diverting water from the Niagara 
River. The use of this diverted water at and below Lockport 
appears to be inefficient. 

53. The other two diversions are made just above the Falls near 
Grass Island and Port Day. The upper diversion, that of the origi- 
nal Niagara Falls Power Co., is reported as 9,450 cubic feet per 
second, from which about 100,000 horsepower is developed. This 
company was the pioneer in developing water power and generating 
electricity upon a large scale at Niagara Falls" Its operations were 
begun about 1890, when the art was in its infancy and there appeared 
no possibility of limitations on the use of water. The plant consists 
of two power houses fed by a short headrace canal discharging into 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 33 

penstocks which conduct the water to turbines installed at the bottom 
of deep pits, the draft tubes of the turbines connecting wih a tailrace 
tunnel having considerable slope and opening into the Maid-of-the- 
Mist pool just below the highway bridge at Niagara Falls. Judged 
by present standards, the plant is not efficient, its output of 10.6 
horsepower per cubic foot-second corresponding to an over-all effi- 
ciency of only 43 per cent. 

54. The remainig American diversion is that of the former Hy- 
draulic Power Co., which is reported as diverting at Port Day about 
8,110 cubic feet per second into a headrace canal nearly a mile long 
leading to penstocks conducting the water to two power houses in 
the Gorge below the highway bridge practically at the level of the 
Maid-of-the-Mist pool. These plants produce 145,000 horse power, 
an average of 17.9 horsepower per cubic foot-second, when the diver- 
sion made from the canal by the Pettebone Cataract Power Co., 
amounting to 271 cubic feet per second, is included, and of 18.5 horse- 
power per cubic foot-second when the latter diversion is not consid- 
ered. The latter corresponds to an over-all efficiency of 75 per cent, 
and the efficiency is about 72 per cent when the whole diversion is 
considered. The company is enlarging its canal and building an 
extension of station No. 3, which will hold three units of about 37,500 
horsepower each and will use probably slightly over 5,000 cubic feet 
per second, with a claimed efficiency of close to 85 per cent. (This 
enlargement has since been completed, the three new units are oper- 
ating, and the total diversion into the canal is now over 10,000 cubic 
feet per second.) 

55. The two power companies above mentioned have recently been 
combined under the name of Niagara Falls Power Co. With the 
three new units above mentioned in operation it will, under existing 
treaty limitations, be necessary to discontinue the operation of some 
of the less efficient units so as to keep the total power diversion at 
20,000 cubic feet per second. The division engineer presents a 
plan for developing the energy of this diversion with maximum 
efficiency. He calls this the compound two-stage plan. Under it 
station No. 3 of the Niagara Falls Power Co. is retained, and the 
remainder of the diversion is to be taken through a pressure tunnel 
virtually parallel to the hydraulic canal to what is really an exten- 
sion of station No. 3, thereby developing about 409,000 horsepower 
from the first stage, whose head is 220 feet. The tail water then 
discharges into a tunnel which leads the water under pressure to a 
power house near Riverdale Cemetery in the lower Gorge, where 
160,000 horsepower additional is developed from the head of 90 feet 
available in the second stage. 

56. On the assumption that it may be possible to take 20,000 cubic 
feet per second additional in the United States, plans are presented 
for utilizing this water in three types of installations for developing 
the total head of about 320 feet, and in a single type of installation 
in which the head is developed in two stages taking all the water first 
by a pressure tunnel to a station well down in the Maid-of-the-Mist 
pool under a head of 220 feet and then through a second pressure 
tunnel under the head of about 90 feet to a station in the lower Gorge 
at the same site as in the compound two-stage plan. 

27880—21 3 



34 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

57. It is advisable to call particular attention to the statement in 
paragraph 92 of the report that the estimates do not include the 
entire capital costs, nor the whole of the construction costs. Costs 
of promotion, of raising funds, of organization, and of legal services 
are omitted as are also the cost of purchasing any legally enforceable 
rights now belonging to any existing companies. The development 
expense in building up a market for power is also omitted. The 
omission of any allowance for existing investments particularly 
affects the estimate for the " compound two-stage " plan in which the 
output of the existing plants is included without payment, so that 
the estimated unit cost of $51.80 per horsepower for this plan is 
lower than the actual cost would be to anybody who had to pay for 
property or rights already in existence, or who had already paid 
for such rights or property. 

58. The division engineer's conclusion is that a combined power 
and ship canal which, under the topographical conditions, should be 
built along the La Salle-Lewiston line, would be less economical than 
a ship canal along this line and a separate power Canal from the 
vicinity of Conners Island to the Gorge at Riverdale Cemetery. 
The estimated cost of the combined plan is about $200,000,000, while 
the separate ship canal would cost $135,000,000 and the separate 
power development about $46,000,000, the difference in favor of the 
separate canals being about $19,000,000. The combined canal is to 
have 12,000 square feet area of cross section, being alternately 300 by 
40 feet and 400 by 30 feet, while the separate navigation canal is to 
be of 6,000 square feet area of cross section or 200 by 30 feet. For 
the development of a new diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second in 
a single stage, he discusses plans producing about 600,000 horsepower 
with practically equal efficiency, first, by means of a plant consisting 
of a power house near Conners Island placed in a deep pit and dis- 
charging into a tailrace tunnel with the surface of tail-water sub- 
stantially at the level of the lower Niagara River, about elevation 
248 ; second, by a pressure tunnel starting at nearly the same point 
in the Chippawa-Grass Island pool and leading to a power house 
in the lower Gorge near Riverdale Cemetery, and, third, by means of 
a canal leading to a power house at the same location. His estimates 
of the construction cost per horsepower on the bus bar, under the 
assumptions made by him, are $89.40 for the first plan, $86.40 for 
the second plan, and $73.70 for the third plan. He believes that the 
tailrace tunnel plan involves construction difficulties due to the pos- 
sibility of encountering ground water at the low level of the tunnel, 
and that both this plan and the pressure tunnel are liable to difficul- 
ties in operation, such as surges in the tailrace tunnel, dangers from 
ice, necessity of unwatering for repairs to valves, et cetera. His only 
objections to the canal plan are that there may be some ice difficulty 
and that the canal will cut through valuable land and interfere with 
highways, railways, water supply and sewage systems, as well as, 
perhaps, with the most economical development of adjacent real 
estate. 

59. For an additional diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second by 
the simple two-stage plan, he estimates the total output to be 580,000 
horsepower, at a cost of $105.60 per horsepower. This cost is greater 
than under any of the single stage plans, and more than half of the 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 35 

total cost belongs to the second stage which furnishes only about 
160,000 horsepower out of the total of 580,000. It is plain that the 
division engineer believes that a second diversion of 20,000 cubic feet 
per second should preferably be in a single stage, thereby making 
the most economical use of the water that may safely be completely 
diverted from the Maid-of-the-Mist pool. 

60. On the basis of these construction costs, the division engineer 
figures that the cost on the bus bar will be $10 to $13.90 per annual 
horsepower for the new diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second, 
while if only one such amount is to be diverted and existing rights 
are valid and therefore must be paid for, these figures are increased 
to from $14.90 to $17, the cheapest development in every case being 
the single stage power canal. 

61. There are numerous diversions for domestic purposes from the 
Niagara River and Lake Ontario, as well as from the St. Lawrence, 
but as these are immediately returned they produce virtually no 
effect upon levels. There are, however, no diversions for navigation 
either from the lower Niagara or from Lake Ontario. 

62. Existing diversions from the St. Lawrence River above St. 
Regis are utilized for both navigation and water power, and include 
four lateral canals constructed by the Dominion of Canada, known as 
the Galop Canal, Rapide Plat Canal (also called the Morrisburg 
Canal), Farran Point Canal, and ^the Cornwall Canal. The diver- 
sions are small, and in each case the water is returned to the river. 
The diversion by the Galop Canal is between 500 and 1,000 cubic feet 
per second, of which an average of 200 or less is used for navigation 
and the remainder for power. The diversion by the Morrisburg 
Canal is between 1,000 and 1,500 cubic feet per second, of which pos- 
sibly 200 feet is required for navigation and the remainder for power. 
The Farran Point Canal diverts about 50 cubic feet per second, all 
for navigation. The diversion by the Cornwall Canal is about 3,000 
cubic feet per second, of which possibly 300 only is required for 
navigation purposes. These canals were built primarily for the 
benefit of navigation, and are open for use equally by the vessels of 
both countries. The development of water power along these canals 
was originally a secondary and incidental matter, although much of 
the water is now diverted solely for that purpose. 

63. The St. Lawrence canals accommodate vessels 255 feet long, 
42 feet beam, and drawing 14 feet. The river is closed by ice for 
an average of 144 days per annum, from about December 3 to about 
April 27. 

64. In addition to the above-mentioned diversions primarily for 
navigation, there are two developments solely for water power. 
These are the Massena Canal, on the United States side of the river, 
at the head of Long Sault Rapids, and the development at Wad- 
dington, N. Y. The Massena Canal extends about 3 miles from the 
St. Lawrence to a power house on the Grasse River, a tributary 
of the St. Lawrence. It has a bottom width of 188 feet and a depth 
of 25 feet. There is a head of about 43 feet at the powerhouse, for 
which the Grasse River serves as a tailrace, conducting the water 
back to the St. Lawrence at a point 10J miles downstream from the 
point of diversion. Until recently the quantity of water diverted 
was approximately 30,000 cubic feet per second, developing a 






36 DIVERSION OE WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

maximum of 80,000 horsepower. Due to improvements undertaken 
during the war, an output of 60,000 horsepower is now produced 
with a consumption of only 17,000 cubic feet per second. At Wad- 
dington, N. Y., a dam 950 feet long was constructed more than 100 
years ago across the American channel. The flow through the 
American channel, known as Little River, is estimated to be 3,000 
to 4,000 cubic feet per second, of which about 600 cubic feet is used 
intermittently and inefficiently in the development of power. A small 
powerhouse is located at the downstream side of the dam, and a 
power canal 15 to 20 feet wide leads from the south end of the dam 
downstream along the bank of the river for about 950 feet, serving 
four plants. The company owning the rights at this locality has 
proposed the construction of a new plant to develop 30,000 horse- 
power, with the use of about 30,000 cubic feet per second. 

65. The problem of how the development of power may best be 
combined with the improvement of the St. Lawrence for naviga- 
tion is, as stated by the division engineer, at present under considera- 
tion by the International Joint Commission. It is not, therefore, 
advisable to discuss further such plans as have hitherto been pro- 
posed for diverting water from the St. Lawrence. 

66. Finally, the division engineer discusses the existing boundary 
waters treaty with Canada, and recommends that it be amended so 
as to cover the existing needs and anticipate future requirements 
more satisfactorily and with more flexibility. 

67. The recommendations of the division engineer regarding modi- 
fications of the treaty and the use of diversions are as follows : 

Recommended treaty provisions. — It is recommended that the treaty with 
Great Britain proclaimed May 13, 1910, be modified in the following particulars : 

(1) That the wording of the treaty be altered to extend the jurisdiction of 
the International Joint Commission to include diversions from tributaries of 
boundary waters except in the case of diversions from a tributary which are 
returned to the same tributary. 

(2) That the words, " the scenic beauty of the Falls and Rapids," be inserted 
in the first sentence of Article V after the word " Erie." 

(3) That the diversion of water from Niagara River below the Falls be spe- 
cifically limited in the same manner as the diversion from the Niagara River 
above the Falls. 

(4) That the treaty provide for the construction and maintenance of re- 
medial works of the nature outlined in section (e) of this report; such works 
to be built under the supervision of the International Joint Commission, or of 
some other international body created for the purpose ; the remedial works 
to be so designed and constructed that the scenic beauty of the Falls will be 
restored and preserved when 80,000 cubic feet of water per second is diverted 
from the Niagara River above the Falls ; the expense of constructing and main- 
taining said works to be borne equally by the high contracting parties. 

(5) That the limits of diversion from the Niagara River above the Falls, 
which the high contracting parties may permit within their respective .juris- 
dictions, be raised from 20,000 cubic feet of water per second on the United 
States side to 40,000 cubic feet of water per second and from 36,000 cubic feet 
of water per second on the Canadian side to 40,000 cubic feet of water per 
second. 

(6) That 20,000 cubic feet per second of the water so diverted upon each 
side of the river shall be returned to the Niagara River at some point or points 
upstream from turning point No. 134 of the international boundary line adopted 
August 15, 1913, by the International Waterways Commission under Article IV 
of the treaty between the United States of America and the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Ireland signed April 11, 1908 ; and that if any part of the 
remaining diversion be returned to the Niagara River at any point an equal or 
smaller amount may be again diverted from any point farther downstream. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 37 



(7) That the limits given above be stipulated to apply to the amount actually 
verted at anv instant, and that accordingly the words " in the aggregate " 
nd " dailv " be stricken out of Article V of the present treaty wherever they 
ccur ; that it be recognized that small, brief, accidental violations of the pro- 



div 
and 
occur 

visions of a diversion permit must be allowed if the holder of the permit is to 
obtain the full value thereof, and that therefore such violations shall be per- 
mitted under such regulations as the International Joint Commission shall 
provide. 

(8) That five years after the completion of the remedial works the Interna- 
tional Joint Commission, or some other body constituted for the purpose, shall 
inform the high contracting parties whether or not, in its opinion, further 
diversions of water from the Niagara River for power development can be 
made, either continuously or intermittently, without serious injury to the 
scenic beauty of the Falls and Rapids, the integrity of the river as a boundary 
stream, or appreciable lowering of lake levels. That, if this opinion be favor- 
able to the further diversion of water, the commission or body shall indicate 
the amount of further diversion which may properly be allowed, and the con- 
ditions by which permits should be limited. 

Recommended use of diversions. — In regard to the use of the various diver- 
sions of water from the Great Lakes and Niagara River, the following recom- 
mendations are made : 

(1) That no change be made in the method of dealing with diversions whose 
primary use is for navigation purposes. 

(2) That Federal control of the diversion at Chicago and in the vicinity be 
established by such measures as are necessary, provided the United States 
Courts do not uphold the present apparent right of the Federal Government to 
regulate the diversions there ; the Sanitary District of Chicago being permitted 
to divert from Lake Michigan and its tributaries a total quantity of water not 
exceeding at any time a flow of 10,000 cubic feet per second ; under the condi- 
tions that the Secretary of War shall supervise the diversions as he deems best, 
that the expense of supervision shall be paid for promptly at stated intervals 
by the Sanitary District of Chicago, that no dangerous conditions shall be 
created in navigable waters, that the sanitary district agrees to be responsible 
for any damage claims arising because of the diversion, that it shall pay its 
share as determined by the Secretary of War of the cost of such compensating 
works as the Federal Government considers necessary because of diversions of 
water from the Great Lakes system, that it agrees not to request or make any 
diversion in excess of that herein stated, that it shall pay to the United States 
for water used for power purposes at a rate per cubic foot to be based upon the 
relative value of the power as developed and that which could have been de- 
veloped by its use at Niagara Falls, N. Y., and -along the St. Lawrence River, 
and that it does all in its power to secure any State authority needed to enable 
it to undertake the establishment of provisions for sewage disposal other than 
by dilution and when so enabled provides as rapidly as necessary such sewage 
disposal facilities as are needed to care for the growth of the district. 

(3) That consideration be withheld on all proposals for water diversions for 
combined navigation, power, and sanitary purposes unless of far-reaching 
importance and effects and consistent with plans approved by the International 
Joint Commission as remedial against the pollution of boundary waters. 

(4) That the present method of controlling the power diversions at Sault Ste. 
Marie be not disturbed. 

(5) That the total diversion through the Welland Canal for power develop- 
ment be limited strictly to the present amount. 

(6) That the diversion through the New York State Barge Canal for power 
development be limited to the 500 cubic feet per second now allowed. 

(7) That as soon as a treaty has been negotiated with Great Britain along 
the lines indicated in section (k), additional permit or permits be granted so 
as to make the permitted diversion from Niagara River above the Falls on 
the United States side 40,000 cubic feet per second, one-half of which is returned 
to the river in the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool. 

(8) That the Secretary of War, the International Joint Commission, or a 
special board of engineers be requested to prepare plans and estimates in 
detail for a comprehensive system of compensating works for restoring the 
levels of all the lakes and their outflow rivers, these plans to be submitted to 
the International Joint Commission for approval, with the intent that such 
works be constructed and paid for jointly by the United States and Canada. 



38 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE BOARD OF 
ENGINEERS FOR RIVERS AND HARBORS, PARAGRAPHS 68-129, INCLUSIVE. 

68. On June 4, 1920, the Board of Engineers for Kivers and 
Harbors held a widely advertised and numerously attended public 
hearing at Niagara Falls, N. Y., for the purpose of affording to all 
concerned or interested a full opportunity for the discussion of di- 
versions from the Great Lakes and general principles that should be 
observed regarding their limitations and utilization. A transcript 
of the stenographic notes of this hearing is appended hereto, together 
with copies of exhibits then filed by certain of the interested parties. 
In addition, on July 27, 1920, the board gave a special hearing to 
Mr. T. Kennard Thomson, who had been unable to attend the public 
hearing at Niagara Falls. Mr. Thomson is the advocate of the plan 
for damming the Niagara River at Fosters Flats, and his arguments 
in favor of this plan, having been fully heard, are given due weight 
in the conclusions that follow. Finally, on August 3, 1920, the board 
gave another special hearing to Mr. Charles A. Pohl, who presented 
arguments against the " compound two-stage " plan and in favor of 
a direct diversion from the Maid of the Mist pool, on behalf of the 
Niagara Gorge Power Co., and to Col. H. L. Cooper, whose argu- 
ments were based upon the large general aspects of the diversion 
problem and the manner in which it should, in his opinion, be treated. 
The board has, of course, given consideration to these arguments and 
to all other evidence that has come to its notice. 

69. Public resolution No. 8, Sixty-fifth Congress, which directed 
the making of this investigation, reads in part as follows : 

Provided, That the Secretary of War is hereby authorized and directed to 
make a comprehensive and thorough investigation * * * of the entire sub- 
ject of water diversion from the Great Lakes and the Niagara River, including 
navigation, sanitary and power purposes, and the preservation of the scenic 
beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids of Niagara River. 

The division engineer — and, in our opinion, correctly — believes that 
it was the desire of Congress not only to be advised of the facts 
regarding all diversions for the above purposes but also to secure 
information and recommendations upon which to base a just policy as 
to present and future diversions for any or all of the purposes 
enumerated; and it was further the obvious wish of Congress that 
any such permanent policy should give due weight to the impor- 
tance of the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids. 

70. At the time of the passage of the resolution Congress already 
knew that many of the diversions then in existence were productive 
of damage, both to navigation and to scenic beauty, but, as all diver- 
sions were to a greater or less degree useful or beneficial to those who 
were making them, there was difficulty in fixing their relative merits. 
The report now enables this to be done with confidence and reason- 
able certainty, and thereby to arrive at the details of the policy 
apparently desired by Congress. We shall therefore briefly discuss 
the three kinds of diversions mentioned in the resolution, as well as 
the preservation of scenic beauty, give our opinion as to their rela- 
tive importance and as to the permissible limits of the three varieties 
of diversions, and finally state our views as to the orderly steps that 
should be taken in the execution of what we regard to be the proper 
policy with respect to diversions and scenic beauty. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 39 

71. In advance of the more detailed discussion we may say that 
we believe that navigation purposes in value and importance take 
precedence over all other uses to which the waters of the Great Lakes 
may be put. As a first step in a proper policy, damage already done 
by diversions should be remedied by the adoption of some plan that 
will not only restore losses of depth but also increase lake levels so 
as to afford higher stages than would naturally exist. The plan for 
accomplishing these purposes with a maximum of certainty and bene- 
fits, both direct and indirect, is the construction of a regulating dam 
provided with sluiceways at the head of Niagara River which would 
restore and increase depths in Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan and 
their connecting waters, and in the St. Marys Eiver below the locks, 
and at the same time permit the discharge of the Niagara River 
hereafter to be made nearly uniform, thereby increasing by 20 per 
cent or more the natural low-water discharges which have a deter- 
mining influence on the scenic beauty, power development, and navi- 
gation and therefore serve to indicate the maximum diversions that 
may be made from the Niagara River. On the other hand, there 
should be no limitation on the diversion of water actually needed for 
the supply of navigation canals, and no difficulty will be experienced 
in remedying the losses of depth caused by the small diversions of 
this kind. 

72. Diversions of water for " sanitary purposes " include those 
made by municipal water-supply and sewage systems and, except in 
the cases of Chicago and Port Huron, the quantities taken are always 
insignificant, and, as they are immediately restored practically un- 
diminished to the source from which they are derived, the diversions 
do no damage either to navigation or scenic beauty, and they there- 
fore call for no restriction. The United States should, however, do 
everything in its power to disseminate knowledge as to the pollution 
of the Great Lakes and to promote the adequate treatment of drink- 
ing water and of sewage. 

73. The diversions for " sanitary purposes " at Chicago and Port 
Huron do not, however, return the water immediately to its original 
source. At Chicago the water is diverted to an entirely different 
drainage basin, the Mississippi, and the Great Lakes are therefore 
deprived of this much of their natural supply. At Port Huron the 
Black River Canal takes the water from Lake Huron and discharges 
it into the St. Clair River some distance below Lake Huron. The 
diversion is small and its effect correspondingly so. Were it larger it 
might be sufficiently detrimental to justify further notice. As it is, 
the Port Huron diversion may be tolerated but it should not be in- 
creased, while the Chicago diversion is so large and its effects so im- 
portant that more positive measures are necessary, the details of 
which will be given hereafter. 

74. There are numerous diversions for " power purposes " on the 
Great Lakes and the Niagara River and the St. Lawrence. Cheap 
power is obviously desirable and development of water power should 
therefore be encouraged so far as is consistent with the more impor- 
tant or desirable interests of navigation and scenic beauty that it is 
the public duty to notice and to safeguard. This is the only limita- 
tion upon the diversion of water for "power purposes" that we rec- 
ommend. At Sault Ste. Marie practically the entire river is di- 
verted for "navigation purposes" or for "power purposes." Evi- 



40 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

dently nothing should be taken for power until navigation has been 
adequately supplied and until the danger of lowering Lake Superior 
has been adequately overcome. As the regulating works above the 
International Bridge actually hold Lake Superior at higher stages 
than would naturally exist, and as the small quantity needed for 
canals and locks is always available, there is no reason why the diver- 
sions for "power purposes" should be interfered with. Every effort 
should, of course, be made to secure the greatest possible amount of 
power from the diversions. 

75. The small diversion for " power purposes " through the 
Welland Canal reduces the depth of Lake Erie and, more slightly, of 
the waters above Lake Erie. It therefore injures navigation on these 
waters and at the same time detracts from the scenic beauty of 
Nigara Falls. The diversion existed prior to the promulgation of 
the. present treaty. The physical conditions necessarily render this 
diversion less economical than a diversion of the same amount taken 
immediately above Niagara Falls and discharged at or near Lewis- 
ton. No increase should therefore be made in the power diversion of 
the Welland Canal. The injurious effect upon lake levels of this 
diversion for " power purposes," as well as the smaller one for 
" navigation purposes " is included in the total damage to be rectified 
by the regulating dam at the head of the Niagara River referred to 
above. The injury done to scenic beauty by this diversion and by 
that at Chicago are included in the measures for the " preservation 
of scenic beauty " hereafter discussed. 

76. On the Niagara River above the Falls there are six diversions 
" for power purposes," three in each country, and there are two very 
small diversions for canal navigation on the New York side. The 
latter two are insignificant and, moreover, the very slight damage 
they do to scenic beauty and to the depths at points upstream is 
readily remedied. Then, too, as already stated, such diversions are 
recognized to be indispensable and their benefits are very general. 
The six diversions " for poAver purposes " are sanctioned by the 
existing treaty, but in 1909, when the treaty was negotiated, it was 
known that they were undoubtedly detrimental to the " preservation 
of scenic beauty," certainly of the Falls, if not of the rapids. Yet at 
that time, no steps were taken to remedy the harm already experi- 
enced which had, by an elaborate investigation conducted by the 
United States Lake Survey, been shown to consist chiefly in accen- 
tuating the denudation of the two ends of the Horseshoe, already 
laid partly bare by the recession of this fall. It was also shown that 
certain portions of the diversions " for power purposes " from the 
Chippawa-Grass Island pool produced an adverse effect upon Lake 
Erie, which, while considerably less than the lowering due to an 
equal diversion direct from Lake Erie was still of sufficient magni- 
tude to warrant serious attention. The report then made by the Lake 
Survey suggested possible remedies which later researches prove to 
be desirable. While we rate the " preservation of scenic beauty " as 
taking precedence over diversions " for power purposes " we believe 
that the development of water power is of urgent importance and 
that such diversions should be not only permitted but encouraged 
to the extent that it is possible to arrange to make them consistent 
with proper regard for navigation and without danger to the " preser- 
vation of Niagara Falls and the rapids of the Niagara River." We are 



DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 41 

hereafter expressing ourselves as believing that works are practicable 
which would not only neutralize the damage of both kinds that 
diversions "for power purposes" may justly be charged with, but 
also would reduce, if not completely prevent, the destructive erosion 
and recession of the Horseshoe which, more than anything else, have 
injured scenic beauty. The iucrease of low-water discharges, to be 
rendered possible by the regulating dam at the head of the river, 
would also ameliorate the rapids and the Horseshoe Falls and even 
before construction of the remedial works permit 20,000 cubic feet per 
second additional to be diverted above the Falls in the United States 
and 4,000 cubic feet per second in Canada " for power purposes," 
leaving all scenic beauty somewhat better than it now is. In addi- 
tion, a diversion " for power purposes " of 30,000 cubic feet per 
second in the Lower Gorge is recommended as desirable and really 
harmless to scenic beauty. We are recommending that the diversion 
of 20,000 cubic feet per second be conditional upon the completion 
of an agreement with Canada for the construction of the regulating 
dam and the appropriation by both countries of the amounts required 
for its construction, and also that the diversion be used in the devel- 
opment of power under the full head of 310 to 320 feet due to the 
difference between the levels of the Chippawa-Grass Island pool and 
the Niagara River just above Le wist on. The diversion of 30,000 
cubic feet per second from the Lower Gorge will be the lower stage, 
with head of some 90 feet, the two more efficient power stations at 
Niagara Falls belonging respectively to the Ontario and the Niagara 
Falls power companies. These stations are now in operation and 
develop power from a total diversion of between 25,000 and 30,000 
cubic feet per second under a head of between 200 and 220 feet, that 
of the upper stage, i. e., difference in level between the Chippawa- 
Grass Island pool and the Maid-of-the-Mist pool. 

77. We now approach the last and probably the most discussed 
subject on the part of Congress and of the general public, namely, 
" the preservation of the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids 
of the Niagara River." We have already mentioned the damage to 
the beauty of the Horseshoe caused by the deterioration of the ends 
of the crest. This is amply shown by the admirable photographs 
accompanying the text, in which high discharges covering these 
usually bare ends are are contrasted with the lower flows that ex- 
pose the unsightly black rock. The denudation of the ends is 
plainly due to the concentration of flow in the notch which has 
formed in late years and has spoiled the symmetry of the Horseshoe. 
This concentration has set up erosion and recession which, in turn, 
have tended to increase concentration in the notch and accelerated 
baring of the ends — the familiar vicious cycle. Mist and spray are 
also the results of this pernicious concentration and they obscure 
the Horseshoe and render it inferior as a spectacle to the American 
Fall, which, with far less deptli on its crest and much smaller but 
nearly uniformly distributed flow, is generally regarded as supremely 
beautiful. The way to insure the " preservation of the scenic 
beauty of Niagara Falls " is therefore to secure a uniform distribu- 
tion of the flow and to reduce it to the point where mist and spray 
will be a minimum. Uniform distribution calls for cutting down 
the now bare ends and forcing water away from the notch, reduc- 
tion in volume can be effected only by increasing diversions. To 



42 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

secure uniformity of distribution, we are recommending the step by 
step construction within coffer dams of a rough stone or concrete 
weir whose design and location will be based on model experiments, 
and the necessary cutting down of the ends and other excavations 
are to be similarly determined and made. We recommend also that 
discharge over the Horseshoe be such as will produce from 3 to 3^ 
feet depth on the reformed crest, a volume that we estimate at about 
70,000 cubic feet per second, and that the flow over the American 
Fall be held at 10,000 cubic feet per second, leaving eventually 
100,000 to 110,000 cubic feet per second available for power. The 
scenic beauty of the rapids both above and below the falls will 
not only be preserved but improved by the additional diversions. 

78. As to Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence, the desires of Con- 
gress are only indicated in a general way as being included in the 
" entire subject of water diversion from the Great Lakes." Since 
the passage of the resolution, Congress has directed an investigation 
of practically the same character to be made by the International 
Joint Commission. The division engineer gives information as to 
all existing diversions from Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence " for 
navigation, sanitary, and power purposes." He shows that there 
are none for navigation or power from Lake Ontario and that those 
for " sanitary purposes " are, as usual, unimportant. While there 
are diversions for all three purposes from the St. Lawrence, except 
that at Massena, which, while considerable, is largely compensated, 
they are all small and their effects of no real consequence. The in- 
ternational portion of the river lies between Lake Ontario and St. 
Regis. Below St. Regis, it is wholly Canadian. Above St. Regis, 
there are no interests demanding serious consideration except navi- 
gation and power. The volume of this navigation, though only 
about 5 per cent of that of the upper lakes, is substantial, but it 
seems unlikely that its importance will ever greatly exceed the possi- 
bilities of power development which are enormous. The navigation 
of Lake Ontario is practically the same as that of the Welland 
Canal and the St. Lawrence. A regulating dam at the foot of Lake 
Ontario would obviously help navigation, both on the lake and on 
the river below it and by equalizing the discharge it would greatly 
improve the power output. Its construction is desirable, especially 
to supplement the corresponding dam at Buffalo, but as the Inter- 
national Joint Commission is now engaged in making the investiga- 
tion demanded by Congress, we forego further discussion of this 
subject. 

79. The preceding discussion enables us to present a logical and 
convincing solution of the problems connected with water diversions 
from the Great Lakes and the Niagara River, including navigation, 
sanitary and power purposes, and the " preservation of the scenic 
beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids of Niagara River," by per- 
mitting us to appraise the relative value and importance of the three 
purposes for which water may be used as compared with " the preser- 
vation of scenic beauty." Navigation, whetheF in artificial canals or 
in open waters, is of higher value and importance than any other 
end served by the water of the Great Lakes. The depths of the lakes 
and their connecting channels which may have been injured by di- 
versions for various purposes should be restored and if possible in- 
creased, and whatever possible done to benefit navigation. Following 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 43 

navigation in importance comes the " preservation of scenic beauty 
of Niagara Falls and the rapids of the Niagara River," which, as we 
have already seen, demands that the flow shall be uniformly distrib- 
uted, in somewhat reduced volume over the entire crest of the Horse- 
shoe by means which have been generally outlined. The Horseshoe 
will thereby be both preserved and improved. The rapids are not 
in any danger and additional diversions will somewhat improve 
them. Power comes third in order of importance, and should be 
served only when the needs and possibilities of navigation and of 
scenic beauty have been filled. Legitimate sanitary uses are so in- 
significant in their effects as to require no limitation. The diversion 
* at Chicago is a special case of use for a sanitary purpose, and it will 
therefore be discussed separately. We shall therefore proceed to dis- 
cuss the above matters in greater detail in the following order: 
Navigation, preservation of scenic beautj^, power, sanitary use at 



Chicago. 



NAVIGATION. 



80. The character, extent, and importance of the navigation of the 
ixreat Lakes are generally known, and the division engineer gives a 
large amount of detailed information as to the commodities carried 
and the vessels that carry them. The traffic consists principally of 
bulk freight, iron ore, coal, grain, and stone, carried in large vessels 
of a peculiar type and most of it originates or terminates at the west 
end of Lake Superior or the east end of Lake Erie. The channels 
through the lakes naturally afford practically unlimited depth, but 
the harbors and the connecting channels have had to be deepened 
by dredging and set the limitations upon the drafts to which vessels 
may load. The lakes themselves exhibit considerable seasonal and 
periodic fluctuations of depth, and the lower stages, occurring gen- 
erally in the spring and fall, reduce to a minimum the depths avail- 
able in the harbors and connecting channels. Thus between 1860 and 
1920 the monthly mean elevations of Lake Superior varied between 
600.7 and 604.1 feet, those of Lakes Michigan and Huron between 
579 and 583.6 feet, and those of Lake Erie between 570.7 and 574.5 
feet. There have, of course, been daily mean stages considerably 
lower than these average monthly elevations. 

81. Transportation on the lakes is extremely well-organized and 
efficient, and a system has been evolved under which vessels on every 
trip have timely notice of the minimum depth available along their 
route and load to the greatest draft thus indicated as permissible. 
Advantage is taken of every possible inch of depth and the actual 
cost of transportation is thereby kept very low. It is easy to see 
that under such a system every inch of depth is of measurable value. 
The division engineer has figured that the average earnings for each 
tenth of a foot of draft of the average lake freights is $44.57 per 
trip, or $590,000 per season for the entire fleet, and this is evidently 
also the loss from a reduction in depth of the same amount for the 
number of vessels considered. 

82. It is an accepted fact that lowering of all the lakes named has 
resulted from diversions and changes in the discharge capacity of 
their outflow and connecting rivers — and the amount of lowering and 
consequent reduction of depth available at critical points being 



44 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

known, it is a simple matter of multiplication to arrive at the total 
annual loss. Table 47 shows the total lowering of each lake by all 
existing diversions at mean stage. Lakes Michigan and Huron are 
lowered 0.47 foot, Lake Erie 0.76 foot and Lake Ontario and the St. 
Lawrence River at Lock 25 about 0.62 foot. If the entire bulk freight 
traffic of the upper Lakes entered Lake Erie the annual loss would be 
7.6X$590,000=$4,484,000. Only about 8 per cent of this traffic 
pertains to Lake Erie and the yearly loss is therefore $3,946,000. 
The loss on the 12 per cent pertaining to Lake Michigan is $333,000, 
and that on the traffic of the St. Lawrence Canals $434,000, the total 
average annual loss based on recent tonnage being therefore 
$4,713,000. To this total loss of earnings the diversion of the Chi- 
cago Sanitary Canal, an average of 8,800 cubic feet per second in 1917, 
contributed $2,866,000 annually, and even the diversions for power in 
the Chippawa-Grass Island pool, far below the foot of Lake Erie, 
lower it nearly one-tenth foot and cause a loss of about $526,000 each 
year. 

83. While diversions therefore cause great losses which should be 
ended by works to restore the lost depths, load drafts of vessels are 
affected still more injuriously by the natural oscillations of the lakes 
which, over a period of years, have had a range of 4.6 feet on Lakes 
Michigan and Huron and of nearly 4 feet on Lake Erie. During a 
single season of navigation the difference between monthly mean high 
and low waters has been as much as 2 feet. The losses due to this 
cause are therefore nearly three times as great as those due to di- 
versions. 

84. As already stated, at least four different plans have been pro- 
posed for restoring lake levels and two of these, those of the Deep 
Waterways Board, and of the Chicago Sanitary District, contemplate 
regulating Lake Erie and restoring diminished levels by works that 
would modify the natural oscillations of that lake. The Division 
Engineer believes that the former plan is objectionable because it 
would increase the danger of floods due to winds and ice gorges. Such 
floods cause a certain amount of damage at Buffalo and Fort Erie and 
other centers of population near by. In addition, the disturbance 
of the normal outflow of Lake Erie would affect Lake Ontario un- 
favorably. We had no opportunity to pass upon the plan of the 
Chicago Sanitary District which apparently is subject only to the lat- 
ter objection. The plan proposed by the International Waterways 
Commission in 1913, a compensating submerged weir of peculiar form 
extending diagonally across the Niagara River from above the mouth 
of Chippawa Creek to Gill Creek, would raise the Chippawa-Grass 
Island pool 3 feet, and by backwater elevate Lake Erie about 4f 
inches. It would therefore fall far short of restoring the natural 
levels of the lake and the oscillations of the latter would remain un- 
affected. The Division Engineer rejects the first and third plans for 
restoring levels and proposes to restore the levels of Lakes Erie, 
Huron, and Michigan by the construction of two sets of submerged 
weirs. One set of five would be at the heads of the Niagara River 
abreast of Squaw Island, cost about $2,000,000, and raise Lake Erie 
1.27 feet, Lake St. Clair about 0.55 foot, and Lakes Huron and Michi- 
gan about 0.16 foot, leaving 0.28 foot to be compensated by dredging 
in Lake St. Clair. The second set of about 11 weirs, spaced about 
one-third mile apart in the St. Clair River, would cost $1,500,000 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 45 

and would raise Lakes Huron and Michigan 0.60 foot more. The 
levels of these three lakes and the connecting rivers between them 
would, at a total cost of about $3,660,000, be not only fully restored, 
but provision made for the lowering that would be caused by some 
additional diversion, the margin on Lake Erie being 0.51 feet and on 
Lakes Huron and Michigan 0.29 foot. 

85. These submerged weirs would leave the natural oscillation of 
Lakes Erie and Huron undisturbed. They would reduce the discharge 
capacity of the St. Clair and Niagara Rivers to what it was before 
any diversions or other artificial changes were made and permit the 
lakes to fluctuate between such levels as would have resulted from 
purely natural causes, such as changes in precipitation, evaporation, 
etc. To design the weirs correctly, proper model experiments would 
be desirable and also prolonged gauge observation. In other respects, 
the weirs are a sound and workable solution of the problem of improv- 
ing navigable depths, in some respects preferable at the time they were 
recommended to any other plan. 

86. Since the Division Engineer's report was prepared, there has 
been a very marked development of public sentiment in favor of the 
opening of the upper St. Lawrence River to large vessels, and it 
seems fairly certain that any such plan will include works for regu- 
lating the discharge and level of Lake Ontario. One important 
objection to restoring the levels of Lake Erie and the waters above it 
by means of an adjustable or regulating dam will, therefore, be re- 
moved, and we believe that the objection as to interference with the 
discharge of floods and ice would be safely met by providing a dam 
with sluiceways, operated by Stoney gates, extending completely 
across the river and by enlarging the area of cross section at the dam 
and below it through the now constructed section of the upper 
Niagara River so as to permit the safe discharge of about 400,000 
cubic feet per second. On December 9, 1917, the stage of Lake Erie 
was 579 and the discharge 366,000 cubic feet per second, and on 
December 7, 1909, the lake reached an elevation of 580.28, correspond- 
ing to a discharge of 400,000 cubic feet per second, so that the dis- 
charge capacity proposed corresponds to actual conditions. 

87. Such a regulating dam at the foot of Lake Erie would have a 
number of important advantages over the plan of the Division 
Engineer. It would hold Lake Erie during the season of navigation 
at a more nearly uniform level, probably between elevations 573 and 
574, thereby increasing the low water depths on that lake by perhaps 
H feet or more, and its range of oscillation during the open season 
might be reduced to a foot or less. The low-water depths of Lakes 
Michigan and Huron and of the channels connecting them with Lake 
Erie would also be improved, the Lakes being raised perhaps 0.2 foot 
or more and the connecting channels greater amounts. Apparently, 
depths on Lake St. Clair would be fully compensated for all exist- 
ing or probable future diversions, and below Lake St. Clair during the 
season of navigation they would be considerably greater than the un- 
disturbed natural depths would have been. 

88. By proper manipulation of the sluice gates of this dam the 
discharge of Lake Erie might be made very nearly constant, say, 
from 180,000 to 200,000 cubic feet per second. This would, in turn, 
greatly benefit the scenic beauty of the Falls, which, when Lake Erie 
is extremely low with, for example, such an elevation as that of Feb- 



46 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

ruary 1, 1915, namely, 567.38, and a corresponding discharge of 
106,000 cubic feet per second, are materially less beautiful than when 
the stages and discharges are higher. The discharge at normal low 
water is considerably greater than the figure just given, being about 
160,000 cubic feet per second. Regulation would increase this dis- 
charge about 40,000 cubic feet per second, only half the amount added 
at extreme low stage. This increase, however, would be a real benefit 
to scenic beauty and it also would permit power diversions to be in- 
creased. Furthermore, the regulating dam would enable the remedial 
works above the Horseshoe to be more safely and readily constructed, 
as will hereafter be shown. 

89. Because of these great and positive benefits, we recommend 
the construction of the above regulating dam at the foot of Lake 
Erie close to the site selected by the deep waterways board. No 
detailed plan has been made for this dam. It is an international 
matter and should be clearly defined in an appropriate agreement 
with Canada. We have, however, made a tentative analysis and 
estimate which show that the plan of control is feasible and that 
it would not cost more than $8,000,000. This cost should be de- 
frayed by Canada and the United States upon such a basis as 
might be agreed to. 

90. The regulating dam would not completely compensate for 
existing losses of depth in the St. Clair River and in Lakes Huron 
and Michigan and it would not, of course, permit any increases in 
the diversions that affect those depths. Furthermore, the oscilla- 
tions of these two lakes and consequently of the St. Clair River 
would be practically unaffected in range. It is seemingly out of 
the question to control the oscillations of the Detroit River and 
of the channels and lakes above it, and, subject to adequate model 
experiments as to the submerged weirs, we therefore recommend 
the dredging in Lake St. Clair and the compensating weirs in the 
St. Clair River proposed by the division engineer for raising the 
levels and increasing depths, all at an additional cost of $2,- 
160.000. 

91. This regulating dam and the dredging and submerged 
weirs give practical assurance of the operation of the present type 
of large vessels with a minimum of inconvenience and uncertainty, 
and their installation would represent full and liberal provision 
for the preponderating interest of navigation. They should be 
begun and completed at the earliest possible moment. 

PRESERVATION OF SCENIC BEAUTY. 

92. We are now at liberty to pass to the subject next in order 
of importance, namely, the " preservation of the scenic beauty of 
Niagara Falls and the rapids of the Niagara River." The report 
of the division engineer is full and clear in its analysis of what 
constitutes and causes the scenic effects of the Niagara River and 
without further discussion we accept his conclusions which are 
that the chief beauty of the Falls arises from unbroken crest lines, 
generously supplied with water and clearly visible from advan- 
tageous viewpoints; that the American Fall is more beautiful than 
tne Horseshoe because the absence of mist and spray permit it 
to create a more pleasing impression on the spectator; that the 



i 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 47 

effect of the Horseshoe is marred not only by the mist and spray 
but also by the denudation of its two ends; that these are caused 
alniost exclusively by the erosion and recession of the notch with 
consequent concentration of flow there to the detriment of the 
remainder of the Horseshoe; that diversions hitherto made for 
various purposes have slightly injured the Horseshoe; that to re- 
duce its rate of recession the discharge at the notch of the Horse- 
shoe must be reduced by distributing the flow uniformly over the 
crest line; that some additional diversion for power above the 
Falls is not only permissible but desirable, because of its effect in 
reducing erosion and recession; that on the whole all the rapids 
look best at low stages; and that the beauty of the gorge is largely 
due to its wooded high banks. 

93. So far as concerns the preservation of scenic beauty, the most 
important measure suggested by the Division Engineer is the con- 
struction of a weir and certain rock excavation for the uniform dis- 
tribution of flow over the Horseshoe, and he believes that this work 
should be planned only after the river bed above the Horseshoe has 
been laid bare, its exact formation ascertained and a correct model 
made to scale and tested. To preserve the flow of the American Fall 
he recommends a rough submerged weir between the head of Goat 
Island and the Canadian side, part of which has already been made 
by dumping dredge spoil. 

94. We are in accord with these recommendations of the Division 
Engineer as to the advantage of distributing as nearly uniformly as 
possible the water flowing over the Horseshoe Fall and as to the gen- 
eral method by which this can be accomplished. The work to be 
done consists of the construction of cofferdams so planned as to per- 
mit successive parts of the river bed to be unwatered and surveyed 
minutely, leaving always sufficient channel way unobstructed to pro- 
vide for the discharge of the river. The construction of these coffer- 
dams is dangerous and difficult, and it should be undertaken only by 
those who have had practical experience under similar conditions 
and therefore understand how to cope with the swift current and 
large discharge. Similar work has, however, been done at this very 
locality and we have no doubt that the cofferdams can be built, that 
an accurate model can be made from which, under varying conditions 
of flow, may be determined the form of the rough structure for di- 
verting most of the flow from the notch and the nature and extent 
of the excavations necessary in conjunction with it to insure uniform 
distribution of the flow over the crest of the Horseshoe. The smaller 
the discharge over the Horseshoe the more easily all this work can 
be done. By completing the regulating dam at the head of the 
Niagara River before work is begun on these remedial works at 
Niagara Falls, it would be possible to reduce the discharge of the 
river practically at will, and thereby greatly to facilitate the con- 
struction of these works. We therefore recommend that no attempt 
be made to start the remedial works until the regulating dam has 
been completed and is in operation. The submerged weir for pre- 
serving the flow of the American Fall is necessary, and it should be 
built whenever rock is made available, possibly as a result of the 
remedial work above the Horseshoe. These remedial works are also 
international in their scope and therefore call for appropriate diplo- 
matic agreement as to their construction and payment. 



48 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

95. Reasoning from the analogy of the beautiful American Fall 
with its flow of 10,000 cubic feet per second, the average depth of 1^ 
feet on its crest, and its average discharge of 10 cubic feet per second, 
per foot of crest, we believe that should these remedial works be com- 
pleted, a flow of 60,000 to 70,000 cubic feet per second, or an average 
of 23 to 27 cubic feet per second per foot of crest will give a depth of 
from 3 to 3^ feet, and, considering all differences of conditions, re- 
sult in a clearly visible spectacle of maximum beauty, corresponding 
closely to that of the American Fall. The problem is one not sus- 
ceptible of rigid analysis and only a comprehensive and intelligent 
program of model experiments will enable the best results to be 
attained. We estimate the cost of all operations connected with the 
construction of these remedial works at $6,000,000. The rapids re- 
quire no remedial action for their preservation. 

DIVERSIONS " FOR POWER PURPOSES." 

96. These come third in our estimate of their general importance, 
by which we mean that the development of water power at Niagara 
Falls should be subordinated to the needs of navigation and to such 
limitations as are required for the preservation of the scenic beauty of 
the Falls and rapids. To show the value of the navigation of lakes to 
the Nation, it is reliably estimated that' the annual carrying charges for 
bulk freight are $250,000,000 less than they would be if rail trans- 
portation were used. Scenic beauty can not be valued in money, but 
there can be no doubt as to the place Niagara Falls holds in the 
opinion of the American people. Power, no doubt, justly comes third 
in relative order among the matters upon which we have to express 
our judgment, but it must not therefrom be inferred that the develop- 
ment of the greatest permissible amount of water power is a matter 
of small importance. 

97. Cheap and abundant power is a necessity of a great industrial 
country such as ours. While, in recent years, the adoption of the 
multiple stage steam turbine in units of very large capacity has 
brought the cost of steam power to extremely low figures, the steadily 
advancing price of coal makes a steam power much more expensive 
than any fairly constant and reasonably efficient water power. 
Ordinary grades of coal now cost more than $6 per ton at Lake Erie 
ports, and are difficult to get even at that figure. Throughout the 
country, therefore, there is an urgent demand for water power. 
Nowhere are the conditions for the development of water power as 
favorable as on the Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers, where a prac- 
tically constant flow of great volume is available under a total devel- 
opable head of about 500 feet, the resulting po^wer at 80 per cent 
efficiency being about 9,000,000 horsepower. This enormous amount 
of power, at present largely undeveloped, is situated close to a busy 
and well-settled industrial region where there are no deposits of coal. 
Each water horsepower used in place of steam would save at least 
10 tons of coal annually and, if the above total water power could 
be developed, the resulting saving of coal would release the labor 
of 200,000 men or more. The part or this power belonging to the 
United States, especially that possible of development at Niagara 
Falls, would be of immense value in the diversified industries of 
western New York. Incidentally, the overtaxed railroads might not 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 49 

only be relieved of much coal and set free to carry more profitable 
commodities, but they might also in large part be electrified. Water 
power at Niagara can be developed very cheaply. If 1,000,000 horse- 
power additional could be developed there, the saving, as compared 
with steam power, would be at least $30,000,000 annually. There is 
now an insistent demand for more power for general uses in western 
New York, and the shortage is certainly to be measured in hundreds 
of thousands of horsepower. 

98. Notwithstanding the great value of water power, we have 
already- indicated our opinion that the amount of water that should ♦ 
be permitted to be diverted is definitely limited. The division engi- 
neer recommends that a total of not exceeding 80,000 cubic feet per 
second be diverted from above the falls. This increase in diversion 
for power purposes above the present treaty limit of 56,000 cubic 
feet per second is predicated on the assumption that the remedial 
works for improving the Horseshoe can and will be built, and that, 
as the submerged weirs at the head of the Niagara River would 
restore the levels of Lake Erie without affecting its oscillations and 
its variations in discharge, an occasional minimum discharge at 
130,000 cubic feet per second must be expected, of which he believes 
that not less than 5,000 cubic feet per second is required to sluice 
ice over the American fall and 45,000 cubic feet per second to per- 
form the same duty for the Horseshoe, leaving the maximum diver- 
sion at 80,000 cubic feet per second. Having in mind the same mini- 
mum discharge of 130,000 cubic feet per second, the division engineer 
concludes that 40,000 cubic feet per second, or one-half of the total 
recommended diversion, may be taken from above the falls and 
diverted around the Maid-of-the-Mist pool and both the rapids below 
it, but that the remaining 40,000 cubic feet per second should be 
returned to the river immediately below the falls, the principal reason 
for this decision being the need of preserving the ice- discharge capac- 
ity of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, which therefore he estimates to call 
for a flow of at least 90,000 cubic feet per second. 

99. The immense quantity of ice discharged each year by the Ni- 
agara River certainly must receive attention in fixing the limits within 
which diversions are permissible. We believe that appropriately de- 
signed regulation works at Buffalo will not only not endanger but 
in reality will increase the river's ability to dispose of unusual accu- 
mulations of ice at the foot of Lake Erie. The power at any time 
to release from 300,000 to 400,000 cubic feet per second and send this 
volume swiftly down the river will permit us to flush the channel 
clean throughout its length and thereby largely solve the ice problem 
throughout the river. The division engineer has stated that a mini- 
mum flow of 50,000 cubic feet per second must exist above the Falls 
so that the ice may be safely carried over them. We are recom- 
mending a minimum of 70,000 to 80,000 cubic feet per secondhand to 
this increased discharge have added the valuable sluicing effect of an 
occasional maximum flow of 300,000 to 400,000 cubic feet per second, 
as may be judged to be needed. In all human probability, ice as a 
serious limiting factor above the Falls may therefore be disregarded. 

100. In the Maid-of-the-Mist pool the ice disposal problem, in the 
division engineer's opinion, calls for a minimum discharge of 90,000 
cubic feet per second, a volume that he feels may not be seriously di- 

27880—21 4 



50 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

minished without grave danger. While as the result of regulation un- 
der our proposals a discharge of that volume would be provided in the 
entire river channel below the Falls, we believe that ice conditions 
in that portion of the river merit some discussion. The mere accu- 
mulation of ice anywhere is, of course, unobjectionable, unless it does 
damage. Below the Falls there are only two localities where ice 
gorges form, namely, above the cantilever bridge with occasional 
damming and super-elevation of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, and at the 
mouth of the river, where gorges have also been known to raise the 
river level from Lake Ontario practically to the Lower Kapids. 
During the exceptionally severe winter of 1908, gorges occurred at 
both these localities. The upper one raised the water level sufficiently 
to flood the power house of the Ontario Power Co. Since that time 
the company has closed the openings through which the water then 
came so that a similar interruption of its service and damage to its 
generators could not occur. The stations of the Hydraulic Power 
Co. were, however, not harmed, and the only other injury was some 
disturbance of the tracks of the Gorge Railway. With proper use 
of the flushing capacity of the Lake Erie regulating works, in con- 
junction with the minimum discharge of about 90,000 cubic feet per 
second that we hereafter recommend, ice gorges in the Maid-of-the- 
Mist pool and lower river should become rare, if not impossible, and 
with proper interconnection of the power plants in the Niagara dis- 
trict and efficient arrangements for cutting off nonessential use and 
reducing essential use to a minimum during such emergencies as 
arise as the result of ice damage, we feel confident that loss to the 
public, while improbable, would, in any event, be small. In short, 
ice gorges in the lower river, never frequent, would become far less 
so, and their evil effects, always comparatively unimportant, would 
largely be neutralized. 

101. The regulating dam at the head of the Niagara River will 
afford a nearly constant flow of from 180,000 to 200,000 cubic feet 
per second. If a constant discharge of from 70,000 to 80,000 cubic 
feet per second would, as we believe, create the greatest attainable 
scenic beauty at the falls and amply take care of ice above them, 
there would be available for diversion about 100,000 cubic feet per 
second. At present, the diversions on the New York side are an 
average of 1,600 cubic feet per second through the New York State 
barge canal, and 19,500 cubic feet per second, taken near Port Day 
into the canals of the Niagara Falls Power Co., the total diversion 
in New York being, therefore, about 21,100 cubic feet per second. 
On the Canadian side, the total diversion by the three power com- 
panies at Niagara Falls is about 33,000 cubic feet per second, and 
the entire diversion from above the falls may be put at 54,100. All 
the power diversions, except that at Lockport, N. Y., discharge into 
the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, which is 220 feet below the Chippawa- 
Grass Island pool. The small diversion at Lockport is evidently 
quite inefficient. Of the five distinct power developments at Niagara 
Falls, only two are utilizing efficiently anything like the full head 
of 220 feet, the Ontario Power Co. taking about 13,000 cubic 
feet per second on the Canadian side and station No. 3 and its ex- 
tension belonging to the Niagara Falls Power Co. diverting about 
12,000 cubic feet per second on the New York side. The others use 
in the neighborhood of only 140 feet head. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 51 

102. While the safe limit of diversion from above the falls would 
be about 100,000 cubic feet per second after the completion of the 
regulating clam at Buffalo, we see that for power purposes this rep- 
resents an increase of but 45,900 cubic feet per second, or only 42,900 
cubic feet per second, if Canada be assumed to take the full 36,000 
cubic feet per second now permitted under the treaty. We are sure 
that no sound reason any longer exists for the unequal division of 
the total diversion. Accordingly, Canada should ultimately receive 
13,450 cubic feet per second of additional water for power purposes 
and the United States 29,450, thereby making the diversion of each 
country eventually 49,450 cubic feet per second. In the beginning, 
however, we think it wise to limit the increases to 20,000 cubic feet 
per second on the American side and to 4,000 cubic feet per second 
on the Canadian, postponing further diversions until a sufficient 
opportunity has been had to observe the effects of the regulating and 
remedial works. As will be explained hereafter, not even the initial 
increases should be made until the construction of the regulating 
dam, upon whose operation the increases clearly depend, has been 
agreed to, funds provided, plans completed and contracts let. 

103. We now come to the subject of diversions from the Maid-of- 
the-Mist pool and lower gorge. We have already stated that the 
division engineer assigns a present limit of 40,000 cubic feet per 
second to such diversions. He, however, believes that experience and 
close observation may justify a higher figure. This limitation is 
based upon his belief that a minimum flow of about 90,000 cubic 
feet per second is needed below the falls to take care of ice. Accept- 
ing this volume of 90,000 cubic feet per second as approximately the 
correct minimum, it is readily seen that the equalizing of the flow 
of Lake Erie at 180,000 to 200,000 cubic feet per second introduces a 
condition with which the division engineer did not reckon as does 
also our provision of 70,000 to 80,000 cubic feet per second as the 
minimum flow over the falls. 

104. As already stated, two of the existing power stations at 
Niagara Falls are efficient. Because of the relatively short distance 
between their intakes in the Chippawa-Grass Island pool and their 
outlets at the head of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool, a mile or less, these 
plants were economical to construct. Built many years before the 
outbreak of the World War, it is probable that their construction 
cost per horse-power at the switchboard was less than the cheapest 
plan of developing the entire head would now afford. It is therefore 
unlikely that these two plants will ever be abandoned. As they dis- 
charge about 25,000 cubic feet per second into the Maid-of-the-Mist 
pool, after the plans recommended by us have been completed, the 
discharge immediately below the falls will be 115,000 cubic feet 
per second. Furthermore, the Niagara Falls Power Co. is under- 
stood to claim the legal right to use at least 3,100 cubic feet per 
second, and possibly 7,500 cubic feet per second in addition to the 
quantity now used efficiently by its station No. 3, and to be planning 
to develop power from this added flow. Ultimately, therefore, over 
30,000 cubic feet per second may be diverted around the falls and de- 
veloped efficiently under the head of 220 pertaining to the upper 
stage, and then the total minimum flow of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool 
will be about 120,000 cubic feet per second. As 90,000 cubic feet per 
second is necessary for scenic effect as well as for ice discharge, we 



52 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

recommend that not exceeding 30,000 cubic feet per second be per- 
mitted to be diverted farther down in the Maid-of-the-Mist pool for 
the development of the second stage of about 90 feet, producing 
roundly 240,000 horsepower. Such a diversion is now permissible 
under the treaty, and we recommend that it be made at the earliest 
possible moment, for the demand for power is urgent, and the de- 
velopment can be made without injury to the scenic beauty of the 
lower gorge. Construction should probably be under a pressure 
tunnel plan, and would require not less than two years. 

105. Certain other aspects of this first step in our power program 
are of interest. The best plan for this development is one that would 
allow the greatest latitude in the choice of licensee, and thereby per- 
mit a selection most favorable to the public interest. The ice and 
other difficulties which led the division engineer to prefer the " com- 
pound two-stage " plan are not, in our opinion, sufficient to justify 
the selection of a plan that limits freedom of choice of licensee, and 
involves the construction of an extra 5,000 feet of tunnel, costing at 
least $3,700,000 more than would be necessary were the intake placed 
in the gorge at an appropriate point above the railroad bridges. 
The division engineer has estimated the cost of the second stage of 
his " compound two-stage " plan as $209 horsepower for a diver- 
sion of 20,000 cubic feet per second producing 164,000 horsepower. 
Omitting the cost of 5,000 feet of tunnel and of certain other work 
peculiar to the " compound two-stage " plan, the cost per horsepower 
becomes about $185. For a diversion of 30,000 cubic feet per second, 
we are safe in assuming the cost to be about $150 per horsepower. 
This saving on cost and the other advantage mentioned above justify 
us in recommending that this diversion from the lower gorge be com- 
pletely independent of the upper stage. 

106. Certain objections arise in connection with this diversion, 
but they can be met. Because of the much longer tunnels needed in 
Canada, it is evident that a similar development there could be made 
only at prohibitive cost. This, added to the fact that in diverting 
30,000 cubic feet per second, we are taking all that should at present 
be taken out of the Maid-of-the-Mist pool direct, might cause the 
feeling in Canada that we are getting more than our fair share of 
all the power. The point is perhaps not very important, but it might 
be met by offering, as an equivalent, the cancellation of the existing 
contract for 50,000 horsepower, more or less, between the Ontario 
Power Co., and the Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power Co., to be 
available for use in Canada as soon as this new water power came 
into operation in the United States. To enable this block of power 
to be released to Canada would require, of course, that suitable ar- 
rangements be made with the Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power 
Co., but it is assumed that this should not present insuperable ob- 
stacles. 

107. Another difficulty is financial. This new development will 
carry a construction cost of $150 per horsepower at the switchboard, 
whereas a new single-stage development would probably cost from 
$80 to $90, and the existing plants have probably cost less than these 
latter figures. In a normal market the most expensive plant might 
be unable to compete with the others, and it might therefore be hard 
to finance, but as conditions now are it should be comparatively 
easy to overcome this difficulty and thereby to attract capital for 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 53 

this development. Even with an assured construction cost of $150 
per horsepower, it should be possible to deliver this power to the 
consumers at $30 less than the rate now charged by efficient central 
steam stations, and yet to earn a fair profit on the investment. If 
we arrange to charge the consumer $10 more, i. e., to reduce his 
saving to about $20 per horsepower, and set aside this $10 annually 
as a fund to amortize the excess portion of the construction cost, 
at the end of four or five years, which is the earliest that a new 
single-stage plant could come into operation, the accumulated sur- 
charge would, with, compound interest, reduce the original capital 
cost to about that of the single-stage plan. Thereafter this proposed 
plant and the new single-stage development could compete on equal 
terms, provided the original franchise for the more expensive plant 
were made correspondingly longer than that of the single-stage 
plant. 

108. In making this suggestion, we are taking cognizance of the 
policy laid down in section 10 (d) and (g) of the "Act to create 
a Federal power commission, etc.," having in mind that in this case 
the franchise would be of unusual value due to the constant depend- 
able flow and to proximity to a market having a large unsatisfied 
demand for power and every prospect of continued growth. 

109. The danger of ice interruption to a plant in the gorge has 
been touched on above. Assuming stable and solid construction, the 
worst that could happen would be that for a greater or less time 
the supply of water would be cut off and it would therefore be im- 
possible to generate electrical energy. We have already shown that 
this danger would be minimized, if not entirely eliminated, by the 
proper use of the regulating dam at Buffalo. Any interruptions 
would probably be short, and during this time essential needs might 
be supplied by the use of interconnections of liberal capacity be- 
tween the power stations on the United States side. It would, of 
course, be still better if good interconnection could also be ar- 
ranged with the Canadian power plants. During the World War 
it became necessary for the Secretary of War to assume charge 
of all power systems at Niagara Falls and Buffalo and to administer 
their power for the greatest benefit of the war program. Though 
nonessential use was reduced and much essential use, not otherwise 
possible, was supplied with power by this unified control, the results 
would have been far better had ample interconnections then existed 
between the four principal systems. Such interconnections should 
now be planned, and before new diversions are authorized the Fed- 
eral Power Commission should insure their installation, as well as 
some adequate arrangement for unified control, during emergencies, 
of all Niagara power and its allocation under some proper priority 
program such as that set up by the War Industries Board. 

110. We have already stated that, contingent upon prior inter- 
national agreement to construct the regulating dam at Buffalo, the 
appropriation of the necessary funds by both nations, the comple- 
tion of definite and detailed plans, and the actual letting of con- 
tracts for the entire work, we recommend the diversion of 20,000 
cubic feet per second additional in the United States and 4,000 cubic 
feet per second additional in Canada. Some statement of our views 
as to the best manner of utilizing this increase is therefore undoubt- 
edly called for. We agree with the division engineer that the 



54 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

enlarged Welland Canal will for many years take care of all 
demands of navigation and, as he has shown that the use of this 
20,000 cubic feet per second in a combined power and navigation 
canal would cost $20,000,000 more than a separate ship canal of 
suitable dimensions and a power canal for the above volume of 
water, we concur in his view that the construction of a combined 
power and ship canal is inadvisable. We also are of the opinion 
that any new diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second in the United 
States should develop the full head of 310 feet or more. 

111. The division engineer estimates that for an assumed diversion 
of 20,000 cubic feet per second developing the entire head of 310 feet 
or more, the construction cost of a power canal would be $12.70 per 
horsepower less than that of a pressure tunnel development and $15.70 
per horsepower less than that of a tailrace tunnel plan. He, however, 
draws attention to the omission of certain items affecting the ultimate 
cost of the canal, such as damages to real estate, interruptions of high- 
ways and railroads, as well as the difficulties caused to the sewage 
and water supply systems of a city such as Niagara Falls. All these 
would add greatly to the final cost of a power canal, and we believe 
that, in the end, its cost would fall little below those of the other 
two types of development. We therefore feel that, as to cost alone, 
there is little to choose between them and that choice must be based 
on other considerations. An open canal 5 miles long is more likely 
to have operating troubles due to the formation of ice in its channel 
than either type of tunnel. The conclusive objection to this type of 
development is that it would restrict the National Government in 
the award of the license and, as a result, the terms secured for the 
public might not be as favorable as would result from the adoption 
of either the pressure or the tailrace-tunnel plan. The tailrace 
tunnel seems, on the whole, to give the greatest latitude in this 
regard, and as its power house is nearer the probable center of 
demand for power, thereby reducing transmission losses and the cost 
of transmission lines, and as, further, its power house is safer from 
danger of damage by ice gorges, which, though slight, in the lower 
gorge may at extremely long intervals prove real, we recommend the 
adoption of the tailrace-tunnel plan. The suggested difficulty as to 
surges and vacuum effects in a long tunnel can be solved by provid- 
ing and retaining as vents a sufficient number of construction shafts. 

112. Assuming that the conditions antecedent to starting the 
single-stage diversion would require a period of from 2 to 3 years 
for their fulfillment, and that construction work would take 4 years, 
at the end of about 7 years from the commencement of negotiations 
there would be available in the United States 240,000 horsepower 
from the lower stage, 580,000 horsepower from the single stage, and 
possibly 60,000 to 150,000 horsepower from the upper stage develop- 
ment, a total of 880,000 to 970,000 horsepower, which would save at 
least 10,000,000 tons of coal each year and possibly $30,000,000 or 
more in the cost of power. 

113. Under our power and diversion program above outlined, 
involving the ultimate taking of 80,000 to 100,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond, the total lowering of the Chippawa-Grass Island pool would 
be about 2 feet. This would be compensated by the submerged weir 
proposed to be built from the head of Goat Island to the Canadian 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 55 

shore. The lowering effect on Lake Erie, about 0.2. foot, would be 
taken care of by the regulating dam at Buffalo. 

DIVERSIONS FOR SANITARY PURPOSES. 

114. Diversions for water-supply and sewage purposes have already 
been discussed and, with the exception of the diversion of the Chi- 
cago sanitary district, they have been disposed of. We therefore 
revert to this important permanent diversion at Chicago. The 
case is so well known and the information in the report so full as 
to call for little further discussion of its merits. Granting that 
disposal by dilution was the most practicable plan at the time of 
its adoption, the fact remains that the Chicago sanitary district has 
for practically 20 years been on notice that the United States was 
unwilling to allow the district to divert more water than the limit 
set in the permit of 1903, namely, 4,167 cubic feet per second. Not- 
withstanding this, the district has since then greately expanded its 
boundaries and enlarged its plans, and from year to year, in the 
face of the opposition of the United States, has diverted more and 
more water, until in 1917 the yearly average diversion was 8,800 
cubic feet per second, which is more than twice the lawful amount. 

115. The district can no longer fairly plead the absence or the 
impracticability of other safer methods of handling sewage and of 
protecting its people from water-borne diseases. Certainly, for the 
past 20 years, expert opinion has held disposal by dilution to be 
inferior to other methods of treating sewage, and enlightened public 
opinion has condemned a policy which, in effect, is the transfer of a 
nuisance from our own front door to that of our neighbor. Large 
cities on the Great Lakes cannot safely drink raw lake water, nor 
should they discharge unscreened and unfiltered sewage either into 
the lakes or into tributary streams. In 1915, the Chicago Real Estate 
Board employed three experts, of whom two were of acknowledged 
eminence in England, and the third a New York expert of well- 
known authority, to investigate the sewage problem of Chicago and 
to present their views as to the best way of solving it. Their report 
entitled "A Report to the Chicago Real Estate Board on the Disposal 
of the Sewage and the Protection of the Water Supply of Chicago, 
Illinois," by Messrs. Soper, Watson, and Martin, has been printed, 
and its conclusions are, therefore, well known to the public in gen- 
eral, and particularly to the people of Chicago whom they advised 
substantially in accordance with the views above expressed. Chicago 
is, therefore, debarred from any claim for indulgence as to work 
done and expenditures incurred in recent years. If, in defiance of the 
opposition of the Government, and in open disregard of the law, 
the officials of the Chicago sanitary district have continued to ex- 
pend the money of their constituents in the prosecution of unwise 
and illegal plans, these officials and their constituency are to blame, 
and they should expect no great indulgence from the general public 
whose government they have ignored and whose interests they have 
disregarded. 

116. Quite recently, at the end of many years of delay, a decision 
in the suit of the United States to restrain the sanitary district 
from the diversion of more water than was authorized in its permit 



56 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

of 1903, has been made public. As was expected, the judge has felt 
constrained to uphold the authority of the United States, but it is not 
believed that any injunction has issued against the district. Also, 
recently, the district, as noticed earlier in this report, has admitted 
the damage done to navigation by the diversion at Chicago, and is 
understood to be prepared to install and pay for remedial works, 
contingent upon the grant by the United States of authority per- 
manently to divert 10,000 cubic feet per second. The views of the 
division engineer as to this matter are summarized in paragraph 
183(2) of his report. We agree with him except that we believe 
that the diversion should be limited to 6,800 cubic feet per second, 
and that, as the use of the water for developing power is more or less 
an incident to its use for dilution, we regard as inadvisable the tax 
that he proposes, though we concede that such a tax would be equi- 
table. It would, however, be difficult to assess correctly and it might 
prove onerous. Apparently, the public interest would be sufficiently 
satisfied were assurance given that all the power derived from this 
diverted water, a possible 70,000 to 80,000 horsepower, would be 
conserved and administered for the benefit of the people of Illinois, 
and therefore not alienated to any individual or corporation oper- 
ating solely for private profit. His recommendations that the diver- 
sion shall be supervised by the United States at the expense of the 
sanitary district, and that provision be made at the earliest moment 
for the installation of a method of sewage disposal other than by 
dilution, are excellent, and we concur in them. We believe, further, 
that the Chicago water supply should receive such treatment as will 
render it at all times safe. The diversion above recommended would 
permit 2,000 cubic feet per second to be taken by way of the Calumet 
River, 4,800 cubic feet per second by the Chicago River, and allow 
the operation of all power-generating machinery now installed at 
Lockport, 111. It would also afford the statutory dilution of 3| cubic 
feet per second per 1,000 of population for a total of 2,100,000 people. 

OTHER SUBJECTS. 

117. Since the division engineer's report was submitted, the " act 
to create a Federal power commission, etc.," has been passed by Con- 
gress and approved by the President. Its provisions will therefore 
govern the issue of licenses for existing or future diversions from 
the Great Lakes for power purposes. Section 7 of this act indicates 
the will of Congress as to the choice of licensees and requires that 
preference be given to applications made by States or municipalities. 
Without attempting to forestall the action of the Federal power 
commission, the record shows that the city of Buffalo contemplates 
making application for a license to divert water for power purposes 
from the Niagara River. In this connection it should be said that 
the amount of central station electric power now used within the city 
limits of Buffalo is about 250,000 horsepower, and the growth of the 
next five years may be somewhat liberally figured at 100,000 horse- 
power. Beyond that time growth is more or less problematical, but 
it is fairly certain that a long time would elapse before Buffalo would 
be able to absorb as much as 300,000 additional horsepower, the 
amount of energy from a single-stage development of a diversion 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 57 

of 10,000 cubic feet per second. Such a development would be con- 
siderably less economical than one of 20,000 cubic feet per second 
capacity, and, in the general interest, rather than authorize a small 
and relatively expensive project for the sole benefit of Buffalo, it 
would be wiser to satisfy the needs of Buffalo, ^hile, at the same 
time, permitting development to be made upon an economical scale. 
A partnership arrangement might not prove out of question, under 
which private interests could join the city in making a single large 
new development of, say, 20,000 cubic feet per second. 

118. We have hitherto said nothing about the uses to which power 
hereafter to be developed should be put. This is a matter that prob- 
ably should be dealt with by others, but, as some discussion of it has 
taken place, it seems permissible to indicate our belief that the elec- 
trochemical industries should by no means be permitted to monopo- 
lize any increase to the detriment of the general user. In our opinion, 
care should be taken to see that small factories and other similar 
demand from the general public will be supplied, and that reasonable 
future increase in this kind of load will be cared for. When this 
has been done, any balance may, under contracts reserving the right 
to reduce the supply in favor of general needs, be assigned to electro- 
chemical uses. By this policy profitable employment is assured for 
a much larger population than would be possible were electrochemi- 
cal use given preference. The electrification of railways should also 
be given precedence over any large electrochemical demand. 

119. We have recommended that 30,000 cubic feet per second be 
diverted from the lower gorge immediately, and that 24,000 cubic 
feet per second additional be diverted from above the falls as soon 
as the existing treaty has been amended and certain conditions as to 
the regulating dam at Buffalo have been met. Subject to such tem- 
porary restrictions as may, during severe winters, prove necessary, 
we believe that these limits should be regarded as daily averages, 
and that it Avould be desirable to take notice of peak loads and load 
factors, thereby affording the most economical use of all diverted 
water. To enable this to be done, a unified control and supervision 
constantly in close touch with all conditions should be installed, and 
the load factors affecting diversions should be fixed as conditions 
from time to time indicate. 

120. Liberal interconnections between all power stations have been 
shown to be indispensable, and every license should make elastic 
provisions for their installation. These interconnections will facili- 
tate the unified control above suggested. Their capacity can be fixed 
only by a careful survey of the tributary territory and its power de- 
mand, and this may well be deferred until these matters come before 
the Federal power commission. 

121. The immediately preceding paragraphs show that, in reality, 
the division engineer is correct when he states in his paragraphs 179 
and 180 that the water power of the Niagara River is a monopoly. 
In many essentials, it is a monopoly, and our recommendation of 
unified control contemplates the recognition of its monopolistic char- 
acter, and the exercise by the United States of such restrictive 
powers as are thereby made advisable. We, therefore, feel that the 
objection raised by certain interests to this portion of the division 
engineer's report is adequately met not only by him, but also by the 
precautions above suggested by us. 



58 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA HIVER. 
FINAL SUMMARY AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS. 

122. We have above stated that in considering the various uses 
and effects of diversions from the Great Lakes, they should be ar- 
ranged in the following order of value and importance : Navigation, 
scenic beauty, and power. We have also reported that diversions for 
legitimate sanitary purposes consume so little water that there need 
be no restriction on them, but this statement does not apply to the 
Chicago diversion. For the benefit of navigation, we have recom- 
mended the immediate construction by international agreement of a 
regulating dam at Buffalo to cost about $8,000,000. This dam would 
equalize the discharge of Lake Erie and raise its level more than 
it has been, or is likely to be, lowered by diversions from the Great 
Lakes system, and it would also restore the depths of the Detroit 
River. At such later time as may prove necessary, we recommend 
dredging in Lake St. Clair, and a system of submerged weirs, at a 
total cost of $2,160,000, these requiring also international action and 
being intended to repair damage done to Lake St. Clair, the St. 
Clair River, and Lakes Huron and Michigan. For the preservation 
and betterment of scenic beauty of the Niagara River, we are recom- 
mending a submerged distributing weir built in the dry above the 
Horseshoe, and the removal of portions of its rocky crest and bed. 
This work also requires international agreement, and it should not 
be executed until the regulating dam at Buffalo has been put in 
operation. We also recommend a submerged weir from the head of 
Goat Island to the Canadian shore. This will protect and increase 
the discharge of the American Fall, and will also restore the level of 
the Chippawa-Grass Island pool, which would otherwise be con- 
siderably .lowered by the power diversions we now recommend. 
While this submerged dam really helps navigation, we charge its cost 
and that of the distributing weir to scenic beauty. Their total cost 
would be $6,000,000. For the improvement of the power supply, we 
recommend the immediate diversion and development of 30,000 cubic 
feet per second from the Maid-of-the-Mist pool. The head is about 
90 feet and the power output about 240,000 horsepower, costing about 
$150 per horsepower in the bus bar. Contingent on the conclusion 
of an international agreement and contracts for the regulating dam 
at Buffalo, we also recommend that additional diversions of 4,000 
cubic feet per second in Canada, and 20,000 cubic feet per second 
in the United States, be authorized, the diversion in the United States 
to develop about 600,000 horsepower, under the full head available 
between the Chippawa-Grass Island pool and the lower river near 
Lewiston, at an estimated cost of $80 to $90 per horsepower. We 
also recommend that this diversion be not divided between several 
licensees, but that contending interests be taken care of under some 
form of partnership arrangement. Finally, as to power diversions, 
we state that the limit may probably eventually be raised to between 
100,000 and 110,000 cubic feet per second, the increase being de- 
pendent on the measure of success attained in operating the regulat- 
ing dam dt Buffalo. As to the diversion at Chicago, we are recom- 
mending that the existing permit for 250,000 cubic feet per minute 
be replaced by one for 408,000 or 6,800 cubic feet per second, and that 
the Chicago Sanitary District, and the City of Chicago be required 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 59 

to provide appropriate treatment for both sewage and drinking 
water. 

123. The public need for better navigation and for a greater supply 
of water power, and the value of improved navigation, scenic beauty, 
and enlarged power supply, are so very great that we urge that the 
promptest action be taken to enable our recommendations to be 
placed in effect. We especially urge that negotiations be at once 
undertaken looking toward the amendment of the existing treaty. 

124. The division engineer has recommended certain changes in 
the treaty with Great Britain, proclaimed May 13, 1910. Except 
as modified in our recommendations already made, we agree with 
his views. The changes proposed in his (1), (2), and (8) should 
be made. The change suggested in (3) should be amplified by adding 
the words " so as to limit it to a daily rate not exceeding 30,000 
cubic feet per second, until such time as further observations may 
indicate that this amount may be exceeded without detriment to the 
scenic beauty and the ice- discharging capacity of the Niagara River 
below the Falls." The modification suggested in (4) should be based 
upon the navigation and power program recommended by us, namely, 
an immediate agreement as to the regulating dam at Buffalo, prompt 
arrangements for its definite design, and joint financial provisions 
for its construction under an appropriate contract. The remedial 
works above the Horseshoe Falls, and the compensating weirs at 
the head of Goat Island and in the upper St. Clair River, and the 
dredging in Lake St. Clair should be covered by the same agreement, 
but work on them should not begin until after the regulating dam 
has been completed. No definite limit should be set upon the critical 
discharge over the Falls and the amount of water permitted to be 
diverted other than to state that the remedial works should be de- 
signed so as to afford the maximum attainable scenic beauty, in our 
opinion corresponding to an ultimate diversion of 100,000 to 110,000 
cubic feet per second. 

125. The limits set in (5) accord with our views as to what may be 
diverted after definite provisions have been made for the construc- 
tion of the regulating dam at Buffalo, but we believe that it will 
eventually be found desirable to increase these diversions. Accord- 
ingly, (5) should be amended by inserting the words " whenever 
joint arrangements for the regulating dam at Buffalo have been com- 
pleted, funds appropriated, and contracts for the construction of 
the dam entered into," to follow the initial word " That." The words 
" These diversions may be further increased as provided in (8) here- 
after " should be added at the end of (5). 

126. The proposal of (6) will also require modification to make it 
accord with our power plan. This may be effected by substituting the 
opening words, " That not less than 30,000 cubic feet per second of 
the water so diverted shall be returned, etc." The remainder of the 
provision may remain unchanged. 

127. We have already recommended suitable provision for making 
allowance for peak loads and the load factor. The change proposed 
in (7) is out of harmony with our recommendations and we suggest 
the following: "(7) That the limits above given be understood to 
be daily rates of diversion corresponding to the load factors char- 
acterizing each individual power station. Whenever ice or other 



60 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

conditions render restrictions necessary in the public interest, steps 
may be taken by the high contracting parties, either jointly or 
severally, to reduce all or any authorized diversions until such time 
as the emergency is considered to have passed." 

128. As to the use of diversions, as recommended by the division 
engineer and quoted verbatim in paragraph 67 under the caption 
" fiecommended use of diversions," we agree with the division engi- 
neer's views as expressed in (1), (3), (4), (5), and (6). We have 
indicated in the preceding paragraph and in the general discussion 
the extent to which we differ from (7) and (8), and nothing further 
as to them seems called for. As to (2), relating to the Chicago 
sanitary diversion, we believe that the maximum should be 6,800 
cubic feet per second, and that the provision for exacting payment 
is inexpedient. Otherwise, we agree with the division engineer's 
recommendations as to Chicago. 

129. In closing, we desire again to express our opinion that the 
report is of great and permanent value. We, therefore, recommend 
that it be printed in its entirety and that all inclosures and illustra- 
tions be reproduced, except Appendix I, which has already been 
printed in connection with hearings held in 1918 before the House- 
Committee on Foreign Affairs. 

For the board: 

H. Taylor, 
Brigadier General, United States Army, 

Senior Member of the Board, 



REPORT ON INVESTIGATION OF WATER DIVERSION FROM 
GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

[By Col. J. G. Warren, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army.] 



War Department, 
Office of the Division Engineer Lakes Division, 

Buffalo, N. Y., August 30, 1919. 

From : The Division Engineer, Lakes Division. 

To: Chief of Engineers, United States Army, Washington, D. C. 

Subject: Report on Investigation of water diversion from Great 

Lakes and Niagara River, N. Y. 

There is submitted herewith report on investigation of water diver- 
sion from Great Lakes and Niagara River as directed by the Chief 
of Engineers, United States Army, together with eight appendices 
which treat of various items of the investigation in greater detail. 
Appendices A, B, D, E, F, and G, contain the eight sections of a 
report of W. S. Richmond, assistant engineer, on Investigation of 
water diversion from Great Lakes and Niagara River. Appendix C 
is a report of First Lieut. Albert B. Jones, Engineers, United States 
Army, on preservation of scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and of the 
rapids of Niagara River. Appendix I is copy of interim report 
submitted March 2, 1918. 

J. G. Warren, 
Colonel, Corps of Engineers, United States Army. 



INVESTIGATION OF WATER DIVERSION FROM THE GREAT LAKES 

AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

1. Introductory. — The following report covers an investigation 
into the matter of water diversion from the Great Lakes and Niagara 
River. The duty of making this investigation and report was 
assigned to me by letter of the Chief of Engineers dated July 20, 1917 
(E. D. 57243), in pursuance of public resolution No. 8, Sixty-fifth 
Congress, which is as follows: 

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States 
of America in Congress assembled, That public resolution numbered 45 of the 
Sixty-fourth Congress, approved January 19, 1917, entitled " Joint resolution 
authorizing the Secretary of War to issue permits for additional diversion of 
water from the Niagara River," is continued in full force and effect, and under 
the same conditions, restrictions, and limitations, until July 1, 1918 : Provided, 
That the Secretary of War is hereby authorized and directed to make a com- 
prehensive and thorough investigation, including all necessary surveys and 
maps, of the entire subject of water diversion from the Great Lakes and the 
Niagara River, including navigation, sanitary, and power purposes, and the 
preservation of the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids of Niagara 
River, and to report to Congress thereon at the earliest practicable date. To 
carry out the provisions of this proviso, there is hereby appropriated, out of 
any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $25,000. 

2. Progress of the investigation. — The investigation was gotten 
under way as promptly as practicable and has been prosecuted with 

61 



62 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

diligence. A considerable amount of field work required in the 
vicinity of Niagara Falls was completed in February, 1918. Other 
field work was of minor importance. The office work which included 
reductions of field data, the analysis and bringing up to date of the 
great amount of existing data, preparation of maps, profiles and 
diagrams, studies of the engineering matters involved, making de- 
signs and estimates of proposed works, and preparation of the report, 
has proved a task far greater than had been anticipated, and the sub- 
mission of the final report has been consequently delayed. A de- 
scription of the field and office work is given in Appendix B. 

3. Interim report. — In compliance with instructions from the Chief 
of Engineers an interim report was submitted on March 2, 1918. In 
it certain facts were pointed out and conclusions presented. It is 
important to note that the subsequent work of the investigation con- 
firms in every important detail the recommendations and conclusions 
therein contained. This report, together with the action of the de- 
partment thereon, is printed in Appendix I. 1 

4. Scope of the investigation. — The general scope of the investiga- 
tion was indicated approximately in the interim report by an outline 
of subjects and topics given in the third paragraph. In preparing 
the final report this outline has been adhered to in general, although 
minor changes in topics and sequence of subjects have been found 
advantageous. In the appendices will be found a treatment of each 
topic and subject in as great detail as is considered essential to a 
clear and comprehensive exposition, without elaborating historical, 
technical, or legal details held to be immaterial, and without any 
attempt to exhaust the subject matter. All diversions of water from 
the Great Lakes Basin of sufficient magnitude to be considered worthy 
of mention have been included, whether for navigation, sanitary, or 
power purposes, the character, quantity, and effect of each being 
stated. The Niagara diversions are dwelt upon with special em- 
phasis, consideration in detail being given to the subjects of preser- 
vation of the scenic beauty of the Falls and rapids of Niagara River 
and of further development of water power. 

5. Extent of territory involved. — The territory involved in a com- 
prehensive consideration of these diversions is the entire drainage 
area or basin of the Great Lakes above St. Regis, N. Y., 66 miles above 
Montreal, the place at which the St. Lawrence River passes entirely 
into Canada. This area is approximately 300,000 square miles, of 
which 59.5 per cent lies on the United States side of the International 
boundary line. The total area is somewhat larger than that of Texas 
and about one and one-half times the size of France. The land area 
on the United States side is greater than the combined area of the 
New England States and New York State. It includes practically 
all the State of Michigan and portions of Minnesota, Wisconsin, 
Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. The land area 
on the Canadian side comprises a large part of the Province of 
Ontario. The water surface area alone is 95,205 square miles, and 
60,975 square miles of this, or 64 per cent, is" in the United States. 
The main shore line involved exceeds 8,300 miles in length. 

6. Population of the basin. — The population of the basin area is 
estimated to be 15,000,000, of whom about 2,000,000 are in Canada. 

i Omitted; see par. 129, p. 60 of this document. Appendix I was printed in Part 2 
of Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, 65th 
Cong., 2d sess., on H. R. 11871, relative to " Diversion of water from Niagara River." 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 63 

At least 16 cities of over 50,000 population each are located within 
its boundaries. 

7. Water power of the basin. — The total developable water power 
of the basin is estimated at 10,000,000 horsepower, far more than half 
of which is in the United States. The water power already developed 
within this area is, roughly, 1,000,000 horsepower in the United 
States and 1,500,000 horsepower in Canada. 

8. Lake commerce of the basin. — The lake commerce in 1917 was 
carried in more than 1,000 vessels of an average registered tonnage 
exceeding 2,000 tons each, about 90 per cent of the vessels having a 
registered tonnage of over 100 tons, while 41 vessels had a dead 
weight tonnage of 13,000 tons or more. The maximum length of 
freight steamer was 625 feet, maximum beam 64.2 feet, and maxi- 
mum draft used, 21.9 feet. The total freight passing through De- 
troit River during the navigation season of 1917 was 95,000,000 tons, 
valued at approximately one and one-quarter billion dollars. There 
is a not inconsiderable lake commerce which does not pass through 
Detroit River. The length of steamer track from Montreal to Duluth 
is 1,340 miles, and from Montreal to Chicago it is 1,260 miles. 

9. Maps of Great Lakes Basin. — The drainage area under con- 
sideration is depicted on Plate No. 1, on which are shown the out- 
lines of the Great Lakes and connecting and outflow rivers, the out- 
line of the entire basin of the Great Lakes above St. Regis, the out- 
line of the drainage basin of each individual lake, the international 
boundary line through the lakes, and the general locations of water- 
ways through which water is diverted from the Great Lakes, or 
tributaries of the Great Lakes, together with other data of a general 
character. Plate No. 12 is reproduced from Plate 2 of the report of 
1897 of the first Deep Waterways Commission, published as House 
of Representatives Document No. 192, 54th Congress, 2d session. 

10. Diversion of Great Lakes waters. — In Appendix A is a treat- 
ment in some detail of diversions of waters of the Great Lakes 
Basin, separated into three sections, (a) navigation, (b) sanitation, 
and (c) power development. Some diversions pertain to only one 
of these uses, some to two, and others to all three. In Appendix A, 
where they pertain to two or three uses they are treated under each 
division concerned, the remarks in each case being confined in so far 
as practicable to the particular use under consideration, and each 
diversion is described upon its first mention. For brevity in the 
following paragraphs the diversions at each locality will be described 
in turn, all diversions at the locality being considered simultaneously, 
whether for use of navigation, sanitation, or power development. 
Attention is directed to the maps and photographs accompanying 
Appendix A. 

11. Diversions at St. Marys Falls. — The average volume of flow 
of St. Marys River is approximately 75,000 cubic feet per second. 
The drop in water level from Lake Superior to Lake Huron averages 
20.7 feet over a period of years, 19.4 feet of this occurring in a rapids 
three-fourths mile long abreast the city of Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 
There is one ship lock on the Canadian side, and there are four on the 
American side, the fourth lock being under construction and not 
quite complete. There are three power developments, one on each 
side of the river involving a power canal, and one in the rapids on 
the American side. The water diverted is about as set down in 
Table No. 1. 



64 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 



Table No. 1. — Diversions at St. Marys Falls. 

[Cubic feet per second.] 



Use. 


United States. 


Canada. 


Total. 


Navigation 


800 
31,000 


200 
12,000 


1,000 


Power development 


43,000 




Total 


31, 800 


12,200 


44, 000 







In each case the water diverted is returned to the river in a distance 
of 2^ miles or less from the point of diversion. It is estimated that 
the fourth lock will require an average consumption of 350 cubic 
feet of water per second. These locks require somewhat more water 
than shown in the table during the open season of navigation and 
far less during the closed season. 

12. The necessary controlling works for maintaining the level of 
Lake Superior are partly built and partly under construction. They 
are described in Appendix E. The operation of these works, and 
supervision of the diversions, are vested in a local board of control 
established pursuant to recommendation of the International Joint 
Commission. 

13. Diversion through the Illinois c& Michigan Canal. — The Illinois 
& Michigan Canal extends from Chicago to La Salle, 111. For the 
past few years there has been no direct diversion of Great Lakes 
waters through this canal, because the connection with Chicago River 
has been closed up. A small part of the water diverted from Lake 
Michigan through the Chicago Drainage Canal enters the Illinois & 
Michigan Canal at Joliet, 111. This quantity varies from practically 
nothing at moderate to high stages of the Des Plaines River to nearly 
550 cubic feet per second at very low stages of this river. Of this 
amount only a trifle is used locking boats, an average of about 40 
cubic feet per second is used for power development at Ottawa, 111., 
and the rest is expended in minor manufacturing uses and in seepage, 
evaporation, and waste. 

14. Diversion through Chicago Drainage Canal. — The Chicago 
Drainage Canal extends from Chicago to Joliet, 111., connecting the 
south branch of the Chicago River with the Des Plaines River. The 
diversion from Lake Michigan through this canal averaged 8,800 
cubic feet per second in 1917, daily averages running as high as 
10,000. The entire diversion was used for sanitary purposes. As 
a secondary matter a large portion of this water is used at Lockport, 
111., to develop power under a head averaging 34 feet. The quantity 
so used in 1917 averaged 6,800 cubic feet per second. 

15. It is estimated that 500 cubic feet per second would be ample 
to serve any navigation requirements of the present canal. Should 
the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers be improved to accommodate navi- 
gation of 8-foot draft to the Mississippi, a diversion of 1,000 cubic 
feet per second might be required to meet the needs of navigation 
only. The present use of the canal for navigation is very small, there 
having been only 160 lockages at the power house in 1917, the largest 
boat locked through being 75 feet long. 

16. Excavation of the drainage canal was commenced in September, 
1892. The Sanitary District of Chicago, a corporation created by the 



DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 65 

State of Illinois to carry on this work and provide for the sewerage 
of Chicago and the surrounding communities, has been in control of 
operations from the outset. This corporation began dredging in 
Chicago River in 1896. The canal was first opened for the passage 
of water on January 17, 1900. The hydroelectric plant at Lockport 
began producing power in December, 1907. The flow in the canal 
has mounted fairly steadily from approximately 3,000 cubic feet 
per second in 1900 to approximately 9,000 in 1917, average annual 
rate of discharge. 

17. The water passing through the drainage canal is in part used 
again for water power development at Joliet and Marseilles. At 
Joliet the State has a dam affording a head averaging 10 feet. Here 
5,250 cubic feet of water per second are used for power production. 
A lock of the Illinois and Michigan Canal is located at the westerly 
end of this dam. At Marseilles a private dam across the Illinois 
River affords a head of about 11 feet. There is no lock at this dam. 
A large portion of the entire flow of the Illinois River is used in power 
development at this point. 

18. Improvement of the Illinois River to afford slack water navi- 
gation to the drainage canal would result in the production of a total 
developable head of 116 feet, including the heads now utilized at 
Lockport, Joliet, and Marseilles. 

19. In Section B of appendix A. a brief history is given of the 
great efforts put forth for many years by the city of Chicago to cope 
with its sewerage and water supply problems. The great and sus- 
tained growth of the city has repeatedly frustrated attempts at solu- 
tion. On several occasions plans were adopted which were expected 
to cure certain evils, and less than a decade after their completion 
the growth of the city had rendered the new provisions as inadequate 
as the old ones had been. 

20. The system of sewage disposal now in use was developed be- 
cause of the city's situation near the crest of a low divide having an 
immense reservoir on one side just below the crest. This is the lowest 
point of the divide between the St. Lawrence and Mississippi Basins. 
While other cities which also draw water supplies from the lakes in 
front of them, Cleveland and Milwaukee for example, have been 
forced to install complicated and expensive sewage purification works, 
Chicago was able to cut through the divide and draw off some of 
the water of the reservoir, thus forming a stream into which her 
sewage could be discharged so that it would be diluted, and washed 
away into the Mississippi Basin. Using pumps at Bridgeport, this 
method began to be used in a small way in 1848 and was expanded in 
1866. In 1887, at the time the present drainage canal was being- 
planned and urged, the matter of adopting some other disposal 
system was considered seriously and rejected. The art of sewage 
disposal by any method other than dilution was not then well de- 
veloped. The fact that such a solution of the city's sanitary diffi- 
culties would lower the levels of the Great Lakes and create certain 
undesirable conditions in the Illinois Valley was recognized, but 
these disadvantages were minimized by the people whose duty it 
was to provide adequate sewage disposal facilities. Sufficient data 
did not then exist to permit accurate prediction of the lowering of 
lake levels, and the estimates made by those best prepared to make 

27880—21 5 



66 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

such predictions indicated lake lowering^ only one-third to one-half 
as great as now known to be caused. Neither the great and sustained 
future growth of the city nor the vast and important development 
of lake commerce, which^is now 12 times what it was in 1889, were 
anticipated. There was a disposition, moreover, to go ahead with 
the project regardless of other interests in the Great Lakes and Mis- 
sissippi Valleys. The matter of Government interest was considered, 
but Government sanction does not appear to have been deemed 
necessary except for change of current in Chicago River. 

21. The case of the United States v. The Sanitary District of Chi- 
cago, now in the United States District Court, Northern District of 
Illinois, Eastern Division, involves the very important question of 
Federal or State jurisdiction. This case was placed before the court 
in bills filed March 23, 1908, and October 6, 1913. The final argu- 
ments in this case were presented in 1915. To date the United States 
Government has been unable in this instance to secure an injunction 
compelling a State corporation to observe the terms of a permit 
issued by the Secretary of War pursuant, in the opinion of the de- 
partment, to his authority over navigable waters prescribed by acts 
of Congress. Here is a situation in which a single State denies the 
jurisdiction of the Federal Government over a matter affecting seven 
other States in the Great Lakes Basin, several States in the Missis- 
sippi Valley, and the Dominion of Canada, although the State of 
Illinois is powerless itself to deal directly with these States or the 
Dominion, except as, under the Constitution, the other States may 
sue Illinois in the Supreme Court, and, under the boundary waters 
treaty, citizens of Canada have the same right of action against 
Illinois that citizens of Illinois have. The State of Illinois would 
seem thereby to deny the right of Federal interference should the 
State of New York, for example, by the construction of sanitary 
or power development works between Lakes Erie and Ontario lower 
the water level along the Chicago water front and in the drainage 
canal. The only remedy would be suit in the United States Supreme 
Court, which necessarily is often a process requiring years of time. 

22. In this connection it may be well to call to mind the fact that 
the State of Missouri brought suit in the Supreme Court of the 
United States against the State of Illinois and the Sanitary District 
of Chicago to prevent the discharge of Chicago sewage into streams 
furnishing the water supply of St. Louis. This case was dismissed 
without prejudice after being in court more than six years, on the 
ground that no material injury to St. Louis had been proved. 

23. It seems clear that matters concerning diversions of Great 
Lakes waters, where such diversions affect more than one State or 
more than one nation, can be handled adequately only by an execu- 
tive body of the Federal Government. 

24. Whether the method of disposal chosen by the people of Chi- 
cago was right or wrong, a condition has been created which de- 
serves most serious consideration and constructive action. The fact 
must be recognized that the present system has been provided at 
great expense, most of which is covered by Bonds not yet retired, 
and that an abandonment of this system for an entirely different one 
would be enormously costly. If the growth of Chicago continues 
at past rates, the present canal will in a few years become entirely 
inadequate under the dilution system. It will then be necessary 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 67 

either to expand the present system and increase the diversion or to 
undertake the installation of sewage treatment works which will at 
least provide that the efiiuent does not exceed in volume the capacity 
of the present canal. It is time that these matters were decided upon, 
and plans for the future worked out. 

25. Diversion through B lack River Canal. — The Black Eiver Canal 
here considered is just north of Port Huron, Mich., and extends from 
a point on the west shore of Lake Huron, about 1 \ miles north of 
the foot of the lake, westward about one mile to the Black Kiver. 
From the canal junction the Black River flows 4J miles southerly 
through Port Huron to the St. Clair River, about 2^ miles below the 
foot of Lake Huron. The diversion from Lake Huron averages 400 
cubic feet per second. Its use is in flushing out Black River, which 
otherwise becomes stagnant and very foul and ill smelling. The 
canal was constructed by the city of Port Huron without Federal 
permit. Since it conducts water around the rapids at the head of 
St. Clair River it exerts a lowering influence upon the level of Lake 
Huron which is important in principle though entirely negligible 
in amount up to the present time. 

26. Diversion through 'Wetland Canal. — The Welland Canal is in 
Canada, 5| to 19 miles west of the Niagara River. It is 26J miles 
long, and extends from Lake Erie at Port Colborne, northward to 
Lake Ontario at Port Dalhousie. Jts total drop from Lake Erie to 
Lake Ontario averages 326.35 feet. The quantity of water diverted 
through it from Lake Erie is approximately 4,500 cubic feet per 
second, and in addition it receives about 40 cubic feet per second 
from the Grand River, a tributary of Lake Erie. These are average 
figures, which, of course, are exceeded under conditions of maximum 
diversions. Of these diversions approximately 900 cubic feet per 
second on the average the year around are used for navigation, in- 
cluding lockage, leakage, and waste. Of the remainder a very small 
amount is used for sanitary purposes, and the balance, about 3,400 
cubic feet per second, for power development. At DeCew Falls there 
is a high head hydroelectric plant of good efficiency which has leases 
for the continuous use of 1,160 cubic feet of water per second, but 
appears to use about 2,100. The remainder is used inefficiently at a 
large number of small developments, mostly along the line of the 
old canal. Diversion from the Grand River began in 1833. Diver- 
sion direct from Lake Erie began in 1881. Since that time the di- 
version has increased, but there has been very little if any increase 
since May 13, 1910, the date on which the boundary waters treaty 
was proclaimed. 

27. The Welland Canal affords passage between Lakes Erie and 
Ontario for vessels 255 feet long, 45 feet beam, and 14 feet draft, 
with ample headroom for tall spars. It is wholly under Canadian 
control, but is available to both Canadian and United States vessels 
on equal terms. The only other waterway connecting these lakes is 
the New York State Barge Canal, which is restricted to 12 feet of 
depth and 15J feet of headroom, and affords a connection 204 miles 
long from Buffalo to Oswego by way of the Erie and Oswego 
branches. The New Welland Canal, under construction, will afford 
a waterway for vessels 800 feet long, 80 feet beam, and 25 feet draft. 
Its operation is estimated to require a diversion of about 2,000 cubic 
feet per second. 



68 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

28. Diversion through Black Bock Canal. — The Black Rock Canal 
is at Buffalo, N. Y., where it provides a waterway and modern lock 
adequate for the largest lake freighters to overcome the swift shallow 
rapids at the head of Niagara River. The diversion into it from 
Lake Erie is estimated to be about TOO cubic feet per second, of 
which 250 leaks back into the Niagara River through the dike, 400 
is delivered into the head of the Old Erie Canal, and the remainder 
is consumed in lockage. Until 1918 the quantity delivered to the 
Erie Canal at Black Rock was larger, approximating 1,000 cubic feet 
per second. In the early days of the canal water power was de- 
veloped at Black Rock, but this practice was discontinued many 
years ago. The 400 cubic feet per second now discharged into the 
Erie Canal partially flushes out of the portion of this canal between 
Buffalo and Tonawanda, now abandoned for navigation purposes, 
the sewage discharged into it at Buffalo. 

29. Diversion through New York State Barge Canal. — The New 
York State Barge Canal system is an improvement of the old Erie, 
Oswego, Champlain, and Cayuga and Seneca Canals. It extends 
from Buffalo to Troy, N. Y., with branches to Lake Ontario at 
Oswego, Lake Champlain, Cayuga Lake, and Seneca Lake. From 
the Niagara River at Tonawanda, N. Y., it obtains its sole water 
supply for the western end to a point east of Rochester. The canal 
system was opened at the western end in midsummer of 1918. To 
date it is believed the diversion has been somewhat less than the aver- 
age amount assumed to be required ultimately, namely, 1,237 cubic 
feet per second. The maximum discharging capacity of the portion 
of the canal leading from Tonawanda to Lockport varies with the 
stage of Lake Erie from 1,000 to 3,000 cubic feet per second. East of 
Lockport the maximum discharge capacity is 1,600 cubic feet per 
second. As constructed the canal will probably require a diversion 
of about 1,237 cubic feet per second for navigation purposes. Inci- 
dentally a portion of this water may be used for power development 
at Lockport and to a smaller extent elsewhere along the canal, 
although this is a secondary use, the same water being required for 
navigation use also. 

30. Until 1918 the Erie Canal diverted water from Lake Erie at 
Buffalo. This is a diversion of very long standing, dating from 1825. 

31. In addition to the diversion for navigation uses there is now 
being diverted through the New York State Barge Canal from 
Niagara River approximately 500 cubic feet per second for power 
development at Lockport and along Eighteen Mile Creek under per- 
mits from the Secretary of War and the New York State superintend- 
ent of public works. 

32. It is an interesting matter, important in principle, though un- 
important in effect up to the present time, that the use of the barge 
canal causes a diversion of about 50 cubic feet of water per second 
from the Mohawk River watershed into the Great Lakes Basin and 
a diversion of about 35 cubic feet per second from the eastern head- 
waters of the Susquehanna River into the Great Lakes Basin. 

33. Present diversions hy power companies at Niagara Falls. — The 
present diversions of water from Niagara River at Niagara Falls for 
power development are approximately as given in Table No. 2. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 69 

Table No. 2. — Water diversion from Niagara River at Niagara Falls. 

United States: Cubic feet 

Niagara Falls Power Co.— per second. 

Niagara plant 9, 450 

Hydraulic plant 7, 840 

Pettebone Cataract Paper Co 270 

Total 17, 560 

Canada : 

Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario, Ontario Power Co. 

plant 11,200 

Toronto Power Co 12, 400 

Canadian Niagara Power Co 9, 600 

International Railway Co 125 

Total 33,325 

Grand total : 50, 885 

34. The Niagara Falls Power Co. has under construction at its 
hydraulic plant an addition which, when completed, will bring the 
total diversion by that company up to 19,500 cubic feet per second, 
with capacity for using at least 2,000 cubic feet per second more. 
The Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario has under con- 
struction an extension of the Ontario Power Co. plant which will 
increase the diversion of that plant to about 13,300 cubic feet per 
second. The commission is also constructing a new plant to utilize a 
diversion of 10,000 cubic feet of water per second under a head of 
300 feet. All the other plants enumerated generate power under heads 
of 214 feet or less, diverting water from the river not more than 1J 
miles above the falls and returning it to the river within less than 
a mile of the foot of the falls. It is to be noted that the new works 
provide a capacity for diversion on both sides in excess of treaty limits. 

35. Diversions through St. Lawrence River canals. — The St. Law- 
rence River canals above St. Regis are four in number, and are all 
downstream from Prescott, Ontario, which is opposite Ogdensburg, 
N. Y. In order downstream they are the Galop Canal, overcoming 
Galop Rapids; Morrisburg Canal, overcoming Rapide Plat; Farran 
Point Canal, overcoming a small rapids of the same name; and the 
Cornwall Canal, overcoming the Long Sault Rapids. The diversions 
are small, and in each case the water diverted is returned to the river 
again within a distance of 11 miles or less of its point of diversion. 
The diversion by the Galop Canal is between 500 and 1,000 cubic feet 
per second, of which, on the average, 200 or less is for navigation use 
and the remainder for power development. The diversion by the 
Morrisburg Canal is between 1,000 and 1,500 cubic feet per second, 
of which possibly 200 is required for navigation use, the remainder 
being utilized in power development. The Farran Point Canal 
diverts perhaps 50 cubic feet per second, all for navigation use. The 
diversion by the Cornwall Canal is about 3,000 cubic feet per second, 
of which possibly 300 is required for navigation purposes, the balance 
being used in the development of water power. 

36. These canals and their appurtenances have been constructed, 
maintained, and operated by the Dominion of Canada without any 
reference to or complaint from the United States, except in the case 



70 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

of the Gut Dam, which is partly in United States territory; and in 
ease of the North Channel, whose opening it was at one time feared 
would greatly lower the level of Lake Ontario. These canals were 
built primarily for the benefit of navigation, and are open for use 
equally by the vessels of both countries. The development of water 
power along these canals is a secondary and incidental matter, 
although much of the water is now diverted solely for that purpose. 

37. Diversion through the Massena Comal. — The Massena Canal 
is on the United States side of the St. Lawrence River at the head 
of the Long Sault Rapids, and extends about 3 miles from the St. 
Lawrence to a power house on the Grasse River, a tributary of the 
St. Lawrence. There is a head of about 43 feet at the power house, 
from which point the last 7 miles of the Grasse River serves as a 
tailrace, conducting the water back to the St. Lawrence at a point 
lOf miles downstream from the point of diversion. The quantity of 
water diverted is approximately 30,000 cubic feet per second. This 
development was made under New York State charters, without 
Federal license or permit, except for minor operations in the St. 
Lawrence River, first requested after the project had been under 
construction for several years, and without any reference to Canada 
until very recently. The development is now controlled through 
stock ownership by the Aluminum Co. of America. 

38. Water power at Waddington, N. Y. — At the Rapide Plat the 
St. Lawrence River is divided into two channels by Ogden Island. 
The American channel, which is much smaller than the Canadian, 
is said originally to have had a flow of approximately 26,000 cubic 
feet per second. A dam was built across this channel at Wadding- 
ton, N. Y., more than 100 years ago. No Federal permit was sought 
or granted for this construction, or reference made to Canada. The 
right to build and maintain the dam was granted by the State of 
New York in 1808, the purpose being to improve navigation and 
develop water power. In 1826 the rights conferred were made per- 
petual, and the ownership of the bed of Little River below the dam 
was added to the perpetual rights granted. Apparently no ques- 
tion has ever been raised as to the validity of this grant, although 
a rather similar grant by the State of New York in 1907 to the Long 
Sault Development Co. of portions of the bed of the St. Lawrence 
River in New York State was held to be unconstitutional by the 
State courts, the decision being sustained by the United States 
Supreme Court. The flow through Little River is estimated to be 
3,000 to 4,000 cubic feet per second, of which about 600 cubic feet 
per second is used intermittently and inefficiently in the development 
of power. A project is being framed for the proposed development 
of power at Waddington on a large scale, and certain of the plans 
have been presented to the International Joint Commission for con- 
sideration. 

39. Diversions of cities. — The only remaining direct diversions of 
water from the Great Lakes System of sufficient importance to be 
worthy of mention are the diversions of cities bordering the Great 
Lakes and outflow rivers for water supply and sewer flushing. The 
most notable example of flushing is at Milwaukee, where nearly 1,000 
cubic feet of water per second is pumped from Lake Michigan to 
flush sewage from three rivers in that city out into Lake Michigan. 
At Chicago the pumpage for water supply from Lake Michigan is 



DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 71 

1,050 cubic feet per second. At Detroit the average amount pumped 
from Detroit Kiver is 225 cubic feet per second, while at Buffalo the 
pumpage for water supply from Lake Erie is 220 cubic feet per 
second. At Chicago most of the water so pumped ultimately passes 
down the drainage canal, forming part of the diversion measured 
at Lockport. At every other city on the Lakes practically all the 
water so diverted finds its way back within a few miles of the point 
of diversion, and so produces only a trivial effect upon lake levels. 

40. Diversions from tributaries of the Great Lakes. — The diver- 
sions enumerated in the preceding paragraphs cover all the im- 
portant direct diversions of water from the Great Lakes and out- 
flow rivers, including the diversion of the Illinois & Michigan Canal 
which formerly was direct and now is indirect, and the condition at 
Waddington, N. Y., which is not a diversion, but a closely allied 
matter. There are several places along streams naturally tributary 
to the Great Lakes and outflow rivers where diversions or interfer- 
ences occur which affect the supply of water to the Great Lakes. 
Prominent among such diversions are : the Grand River in Ontario, a 
portion of whose discharge has for many years been diverted through 
the Port Maitland, or Dunnville, feeder into the Welland Canal, and 
so into Lake Ontario, Tonawanda and Ellicott Creeks ; which natu- 
rally discharged into Niagara River, diverted into the New York 
State Barge Canal, and so ultimately into Lake Ontario at Oswego. 

41. Supplies from adjacent watersheds. — Mention has already been 
made of the fact that the summit level water supply of the New York 
State Barge Canal is so arranged that the Oneida and Oswego Rivers, 
tributaries of Lake Ontario, receive a small amount of water from 
the Mohawk and Susquehanna watersheds. A similar case is that 
of the Fox River in Wisconsin, a tributary of Lake Michigan, which 
receives during high water a small amount of water through the Fox 
River Canal from Wisconsin River, a tributary of the Mississippi. 
Formerly the operation of the Ohio and Erie Canal in Ohio caused a 
small diversion from the Tuscarawas River, a tributary of the Ohio 
River, into Lake Erie at Cleveland. 

42. Other canals in the basin. — Other canals which now cause a re- 
distribution of water between adjacent watersheds in the Great Lakes 
Basin are the Trent Canal, in Ontario, between Lake Ontario and 
Georgian Bay, and Rideau Canal, in Ontario, between Lake Ontario 
and the Ottawa River. Abandoned canals which formerly caused 
such redistribution are the Shenango Canal in Pennsylvania; the 
Chenango, Chemung, and Genesee Valley Canals in New York; and 
the Miami and Erie Canal in Ohio. Proposed canals which probably 
would cause such redistribution are the Lake Erie and Ohio River 
Canal, the Lake Erie-Lake Michigan Canal, and the Georgian Bay 
Ship Canal. 

43. Proposed navigation canals, Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. — Aside 
from the Welland Canals, and the proposed Erie & Ontario Sanitary 
danal, to be mentioned hereafter, the proposed routes of navigation 
connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario have contemplated using portions 
of the Niagara River. The first survey for such a canal was made 
in 1784. Since that date but few years have passed without agitation 
for the construction of such a canal, and many surveys and estimates 
have been made. The most recent and also the most elaborate and 
complete survey and estimate is that of the United States Board of 



72 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Engineers on Deep Waterways, whose report, submitted in 1900, was 
published as House of Representatives Document No. 149, Fifty-sixth 
Congress, second session. This board surveyed and estimated in 
detail two routes, known respectively as the Tonawanda-Olcott route 
and the La Salle-Lewiston route, but recommended the latter as more 
economical and otherwise preferable. In the course of the present 
investigation a careful reconnaisance was made of both routes, and 
revisory surveys of the La Salle-Lewiston route were made in suffi- 
cient detail to bring the information up to date. 

44. Improvement of the Black Rock Canal, including construction 
of the new lock at Black Rock, has obviated the necessity of con- 
structing the works designed by the board for the head of Niagara 
River. The artificial portion of the route extending from La Salle 
to Lewiston has been redesigned with more liberal dimensions, and 
an estimate of the cost has been prepared based on present-day prices. 
In a later portion of the report this canal is considered in relation 
to its combination with a project for the development of water power. 

45. In Section A of Appendix A the matter of a ship canal between 
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario is treated at considerable length for 
two reasons : First, to comply with instructions contained in depart- 
ment letters dated August 4, 1916 (E. D. 42608) ; September 29, 1916 
(E. D. 101152) ; and April 28, 1917 (E. D. 106256), which cover the 
preliminary examination on "waterway or ship channel along the 
most practicable route between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario of suffi- 
cient capacity to admit the largest vessels now in use on the Great 
Lakes," ordered by Congress in the river and harbor act of July 27, 
1916, which examination and report were originally directed by the 
department to be included in the investigation reported herein but 
are now made the subject of a separate report and, second, to comply 
with department instructions that such a canal should be treated in 
this report with special reference to the practicability and advis- 
ability of making it a combined power and ship canal. 

46. For a ship canal without power development the estimated 
costs are as given in Table No. 3 : 

Table No. 3. — Estimated cost of ship canal, La Salle-Letviston route. 



Size of prism. 


Size of locks. 


Cost. 


200 feet wide, 25 feet deep 


800 feet long, 80 feet wide, 30 feet deep 

do 


$120,000,000 


200 feet wide, 30 feet deep 


135,000,000 


300 feet wide, 30 feet deep 


155,652,000 









47. It is important to note that the new Welland Ship Canal, only 
a few miles distant, which is now partially completed, and which no 
doubt will be open before a canal in the United States could be con- 
structed, will be able to care for all the traffic likely to exist between 
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario for many years to come, and that 
accordingly there is no necessity for an additional canal. Moreover, 
it should be borne in mind that communication between Lake Ontario 
and the seaboard is still limited by the St. Lawrence canals and 
the shallow places in St. Lawrence River. The present commerce 
through the Welland Canal is only about 5 per cent as large as that 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 73 

through the Detroit River, and of this small amount not more than 
10 per cent is United States commerce. 

48. The diversion of water from Niagara River for navigation use 
in a canal extending from La Salle to Lewiston, would probably be 
less than 1,000 cubic feet per second. 

49. Proposed canals, Lake Ontario to Hudson River. — Four water 
routes from Lake Ontario to the sea have in the past received con- 
sideration. These are shown on Plate No. 12. One of them is the 
natural route by way of the St. Lawrence River. The other three 
are by way of the Hudson River. Of the routes to the Hudson, one 
follows the St. Lawrence to Lake St. Louis, an artificial canal from 
there to the Richelieu River, then up to the Richelieu, through Lake 
Champlain, and by Woods Creek and Bond Creek to the Hudson; 
another follows the St. Lawrence to Lake St. Francis, an artificial 
canal from there to Lake Champlain, and on to the Hudson as be- 
fore; and the third leaves Lake Ontario at Oswego, following the 
Oswego and Oneida Rivers to Oneida Lake, across the divide in an 
artificial canal, and on down the Mohawk River to the Hudson. 
Only the last route lies entirely in United States territory. 

50. The Oswego-Mohawk route was first surveyed for improve- 
ment in 1791. In 1829, upon opening the Oswego Canal, this route 
became navigable, the Erie Canal along the Mohawk River having 
been opened previously. This route was carefully surveyed by the 
Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, and its estimate of cost for 
a ship canal was presented in the report of 1900. The route was 
recommended by the board in preference to the route via St. Law- 
rence River to Lake St. Francis, Lake St. Francis to Lake Cham- 
plain via artificial canal, etc., which route was also carefully sur- 
veyed by the board, similar estimates being prepared. The build- 
ing of the New York State Barge Canal along the Oswego-Mohawk 
route has made the construction of this ship canal as planned impos- 
sible, and has rendered very difficult the provision of an adequate 
water supply for the summit level of any ship canal built along this 
route. 

51. Any diversion of water brought about by the operation of 
such a canal would amount solely to a redistribution of the water at 
the summit level between the adjacent watersheds of the Hudson 
River and the Great Lakes Basin. 

52. Long Sault Rapids project. — A project to dam the entire St. 
Lawrence River at the foot of Long Sault Rapids was seriously con- 
sidered during the years 1907 to 1916. The scheme was primarily one 
of power development under a head of 40 feet, and secondarily of 
improvement to navigation under the slack-water system. For this 
purpose the Long Sault Development Co., a subsidiary of the Alumi- 
num Co. of America, was incorporated in New York State in 1907. 
In 1913 the State repealed the act of incorporation as unconstitu- 
tional, the decision being upheld in the United States Supreme Court 
in 1916. Congressional authority for the development was sought 
from 1907 to 1912, but without success. Unsuccessful attempts were 
also made to secure authority of the Parliament of Canada. 

53. Erie de Ontario Sanitary Canal project. — The project of the 
Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. involves a diversion of 26,000 
cubic feet of water per second from Lake Erie, with which it is 
proposed to develop 800,000 horsepower. About 21,000 cubic feet per 



74 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

second of this is to pass through the main ship, sanitary, and power 
canal, which is planned to be 40 miles long, exclusive of the harbors, 
extending from Seneca Shoal, in Lake Erie, passing south and east 
of Buffalo and Lackawanna, west of Lockport, and reaching Lake 
Ontario at Olcott, N. Y. There is to be a ship lock having an 8-foot 
lift at Lake Erie and two enormous twin lift locks near Lockport, 
N. Y., one of 209 feet lift and the other of 104 feet lift. A branch 
canal following the line of the old Erie Canal from Black Rock to 
Tonawanda, and extending thence easterly to its junction with the 
main canal, is to be 13^ miles long and carry a discharge of 5,000 
cubic feet per second. The depth of the main canal is to be 30 feet 
and of the branch canal 12 feet. 

54. The project of the company is threefold: First to provide a 
ship canal of ample dimensions connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario, 
whose control for navigation uses will be turned over to the Federal 
Government without charge; second, to prevent contamination of 
the Niagara River with sewage from Buffalo and the Tonawandas 
and eliminate flood conditions from Buffalo River by providing 
drainage into the new canal free of charge; and, third, to utilize 
under a high head for power development all the water permitted by 
treaty to be diverted from Niagara River for power purposes, there- 
by earning a revenue sufficient to pay for and maintain the works, and 
provide a large amount of power in the district. Of the 26,000 cubic 
feet per second diversion, 6,000 is considered by this company to be a 
permissible diversion for sanitary purposes. The other 20,000 is to be 
taken from the present permittees, namely 19,500 from the Niagara 
Falls Power Co. and 500 from the Hydraulic Race Co. of Lockport, 
N. Y. These companies are to be compensated for loss of water 
either by being supplied with an amount of power equal to that now 
produced, or their properties are to be condemned and purchased. 

55. As a navigation project, assuming that provision for such navi- 
gation is essential, the proposition is open to two fatal objections: 
First, the route crosses every railroad and road entering Buffalo from 
the east, south, and west, some 83 or more altogether, requiring about 
70 movable bridges, and the consequent obstruction to traffic would 
be enormous; second, a better and much cheaper canal can be pro- 
vided along the La Salle-Lewiston route. There are four other seri- 
ous objections. The first of these is the lowering of Lake Erie of 
1.18 feet at mean stage, which would be caused by this direct diver- 
sion. This lowering could be prevented at considerable expense by 
the construction of remedial works. The second is the production of 
excessive currents in the Black Rock Ship Canal, and the third is 
the unduly narrow canal section provided in earth cut. Both these 
objections could be overcome by canal enlargements, which would be 
very costly. The fourth is the difficult and dangerous crossing at 
grade of the New York State Barge Canal. This objection could 
probably be overcome also at great expense by the use of locks and 
syphons or by excavation and maintenance of a large basin at the 
crossing. 

56. As regards the sanitary features of the project, they seem 
both uneconomical and to some extent undesirable. The matter was 
carefully investigated by the International Joint Commission, which 
reported that the canal would be highly objectionable and dangerous 
from a sanitary standpoint if raw sewage were discharged into it, 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 75 

and that the expense and extent of treatment of sewage from Buffalo 
and other communities along Niagara River would be greater to pre- 
pare the sewage for discharge into the canal than to prepare it for 
discharge into Niagara River. The report of the commission was 
adverse and highly unfavorable to the canal. It is generally con- 
ceded by sanitarians that water supplies from such streams as the 
Niagara River must be purified in any event, and money is more 
wisely expended in purifying intensively the relatively small quan- 
tity of water diverted for water supply than in attempting to pre- 
vent completely the discharge of impurities into the stream, although 
nuisances and gross pollution should be prohibited. 

57. In regard to the power development features of this project 
there seems to be no insuperable obstacle to the development of about 
787,000 horsepower, an amount slightly less than the stated 800,000, 
in the summer time. The probability of serious difficulties with ice 
in wintertime seems very great, because of the enormous quantities 
of ice which usually pile up in windrows at the eastern end of Lake 
Erie. The only estimate of cost of the project submitted by the com- 
pany is based on prewar conditions and prices, and is obviously very 
much too small. It is $95,969,000. An estimate comparable to other 
estimates of power development propositions given in this report 
has been prepared, the total amount being $401,760,000. On this 
basis the cost per horsepower of development would be $510.50. It is 
further estimated that the cost of producing power on the bus bars 
in the power stations would be at least $65 per horsepower per annum, 
as against $10 to $16 in the new plans proposed to be constructed at 
Niagara Falls. 

58. Preservation of scenic beauty of Niagara Falls and the rapids 
of Niagara River. — The Falls of Niagara, with the rapids and whirl- 
pool in the gorge, constitute what is probably the most famous scenic 
marvel in the world. Officials of the New York State reservation 
at Niagara Falls estimate the number of spectators annually at one 
and one-half million persons, many of whom come from great dis- 
tances. The total expenditure per annum of these tourists is esti- 
mated at $37,000,000. The destruction or serious defacement of the 
spectacle or any part of it for power development or commercializa- 
tion of any kind would, and should beyond doubt, be held almost 
universally to be intolerable vandalism. 

59. The problem of Niagara Falls. — There is much to be said, how- 
ever, in favor of Niagara power and its great benefits to the United 
States, and to the world. The development already existing made pos- 
sible the growth in this country of chemical industries so important 
that it is difficult to see how they could possibly be dispensed with. 
It might almost be said that the war could not have been won with- 
out them. It is true also that the great hydroelectric developments 
now existing at Niagara Falls furnish a spectacle of beauty, grand- 
eur, and sublimity almost rivaling the Falls and rapids themselves. 
The problem is to develop a policy which will insure preservation of 
the natural scenery in so far as justifiable, and at the same time har- 
monize if possible with present power development and future indus- 
trial needs. At first glance it would seem that no harmony was pos- 
sible, that power development must give way to scenic preservation. 
A careful study of all the facts makes it dear that this is not the 
case; that the utmost harmony can readily be made to prevail be- 



76 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

tween the two apparently conflicting interests, and, strange as it may 
at first seem, that the scenic preservation may be promoted by a 
further development of power, with its great enhancement of com- 
mercial advantages. 

60. Character of the Horseshoe Falls. — This very satisfactory con- 
dition arises because of the peculiar character and growth of the 
Horseshoe Falls. While this falls discharges 16 times as much water 
as the American Falls, and has a crest line 2.6 times as long, yet it is 
often held to be inferior as a spectacle to the lesser American Falls. 
It would seem then that for some reason its production represented 
waste and inefficiency. An analysis of the situation makes the rea- 
sons apparent. The crest line forms a deep curve which makes it 
impossible to see more than about half of the falls at a time, except 
from one viewpoint in Canada. In the central 1,000 feet of the crest 
line, situated deep in the curve, more than 80 per cent of the flow over 
this falls plunges down over the cliff behind a thick cloud of mist. 
This part of the waterfall is seldom more than partially visible, and 
then only under favorable conditions of wind which blows the spray 
to one side. It seems to be a fact that perhaps more than half of the 
water flowing over this cataract adds nothing at all to the grandeur, 
unless it be somewhat in the form of noise, while it greatly injures 
the scenic effect by causing a cloud of spray which hides a large por- 
tion of the falls almost perpetually. Meanwhile the ends of the crest 
line are never well covered with water, and frequently are bare, leav- 
ing them very unattractive in appearance. 

61. Erosion of the Horseshoe Falls. — Not only does the present 
great concentration of water in the apex of the deep notch in the 
crest line of Horseshoe Falls represent an absolute loss both to power 
development and to scenery, but it forms a very destructive agent, 
eroding the crest line at its point of greatest recession at the rate of 
5 feet a year. The recession causes a greater concentration of flow, 
and the greater concentration, in turn, more rapid and more con- 
centrated recession. It has been remarked aptly that the Horse- 
shoe Falls is " committing suicide." Not only is this a fact, but 
furthermore, it seems inevitable that if this destructive erosion re- 
mains unchecked the crest will, in a very few hundred years, have 
receded to a point where it will receive the water now flowing to the 
American Falls, thus utterly destroying this beautiful spectacle, 
probably the best single feature of all the scenic wonders in the lo- 
cality. 

62. Horseshoe Falls remedial works. — The remedy is to construct 
a submerged dam or weir in the center of the rapids just above 
the crest of Horseshoe Falls. This would spread the water from 
the center of the falls toward the ends. Even then it would be ad- 
vantageous, both to the spectacle and in checking erosion, to divert 
more water around the falls ; and this would be available for generat- 
ing power. The construction would be unusual and difficult, but 
it is simple in principle and there appears no reason why it is not 
practicable, or why it would not be reasonably slow in cost. It is be- 
lieved that the works should not be designed until more thorough 
surveys have been executed, and extensive experiments made on 
large models. 

63. It is confidently believed that the works as proposed would 
greatly reduce erosion of the crest line, increase the beauty of the 



DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 77 

spectacle, and at the same time permit increased diversion for power 
production. A submerged weir or dam was first proposed in 1906, 
and the idea was presented to Congress in 1908 in Senate Document 
No. 105, Sixty-second Congress, First session, page 15, as follows: — 

The dam, if properly planned, would serve to change the direction of the 
flow, so as to increase the streams that feed the Falls at Terrapin Point and 
at the Canadian shore. The decrease in the mighty volume that overflows 
the apex of the Horseshoe would not be noticeable. If built, Canada and the 
United States should do the actual work under some form of international 
agreement. A very direct result of the construction of this submerged dam 
would be a diminution in the rate of recession of the apex of the Horseshoe. 
This in itself is extremely desirable. 

64. American Falls remedial ivorks. — It is desirable that the flow 
over the American Falls be increased slightly, especially if further 
diversions of water from Niagara River above the Falls are made. 
The only remedial works required for this purpose consist of loose 
rock dumped on the bottom of the river above Goat Island and the 
first cascade. This dump is already partially constructed, and it is 
believed would be completed by the power companies without expense 
to the Government, with spoil excavated from such new power de- 
velopment works as may be constructed later. 

65. Present effects of diversions on the Falls and rapids. — It is in- 
disputable that the present diversions of water from Niagara River 
for power development purposes have had some detrimental effect 
on the Falls, and on the depths of water in Niagara River and Lake 
Erie. This has been demonstrated as a scientific certainty. The 
only distinctly visible effects, however, are at the ends of the crest 
of the Horseshoe Falls, and even there they are masked by the effects 
due to recession of the apex of the crest line, and by changes in 
stage of Lake Erie. Statements as to the changed appearance of 
the Falls are sometimes made by persons whose utterances carry 
weight, either to show that present diversions have greatly injured 
the scenic beauty of the Falls, or asserting the contrary. The mere 
fact of these contradictions point to error. As a matter of fact few 
if any of these observers have taken into account the changes in 
stage of Lake Erie at Buffalo, largely due to wind, which cause the 
volume of flow over the Falls to change from hour to hour, day to 
day, and year to year. Such an observer might well have seen the 
Falls on two occasions, on one of which the volume of flow due to lake 
stage was twice what it was on the other occasion. Such statements 
have no significance if unaccompanied by data as to the prevailing 
stages of water. These matters are brought out in Section E — 1, Ap- 
pendix C, where many photographs illustrative of the facts are pre- 
sented. The injury already done, which is not extensive, would 
be repaired by the proposed remedial works. The effects of diversion 
on the Whirlpool and Lower Rapids are beneficial up to a certain 
point, the spectacle being greatest at moderately low river stages. 

66. Allowable diversion around the Falls and rapids. — If the 
remedial works whose design has been outlined above are provided, 
it is believed a total diversion of 80,000 cubic feet per second may be 
made around the Falls, and 40,000 around the Whirlpool and Lower 
Rapids without injury to the scenic beauty, and without endanger- 
ing the ice discharging capacity of the Falls or rapids, these diver- 
sions to be divided equally between Canada and the United States. 



78 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

After these diversions have been effected it is quite possible that ob- 
servation will show that further diversion is permissible, especially 
should the possibility of utilizing further diversions at medium or 
high stage only be considered. 

67. The quantities stated in the preceding paragraph were arrived 
at after considerable study, as related in Appendix C. The effects 
at low-water stages are the critical considerations. Under the very 
infrequent condition when the total river flow is 130,000 cubic feet 
per second the flow over the Falls would be 50,000 cubic feet per 
second, of which 5,000 would pass over the American Falls. The 
flow over the Horseshoe Falls would then be about twice as large per 
foot of crest line as the flow over the American Falls under average 
conditions, and more than three times as large as during this very 
abnormal low- water condition. The 45,000 cubic feet per second 
flowing down the rapids above Horseshoe Falls would provide 50 
per cent more water per foot of width of channel than past experi- 
ence has shown necessary in the American channel leading to the 
American Falls for the prevention of ice jams. The possibility of 
dangerous ice jams forming in the Whirlpool Rapids or Lower 
Rapids appears much greater than in the rapids above the Falls. It 
is important also that the scenic beauty should not be injured at very 
low stages. A careful study of photographs, profiles, gauge records, 
and other evidence leads to the conclusion that the diversions around 
these rapids should be limited to 40,000 cubic feet per second until 
the effects of this diversion can be observed. 

68. Propositions for utilizing diversions with greater economy. — It is, 
in the realm of power development that great opportunities lie for the 
more economical use of water diverted from the Great Lakes, and these 
opportunities are greatest, and of most importance at Niagara Falls. 
Of the 20,000 cubic feet per second permitted by treaty to be diverted 
from Niagara River on the United States side above the Falls, 500 is. 
now allotted to the Hydraulic Race Co., of Lockport, and 19,500 to 
the Niagara Falls Power Co. of Niagara Falls, N. Y. The 500 cubic 
feet per second delivered to Lockport is used inefficiently and inter- 
mittently. As yet the Niagara Falls Power Co. does not use all of 
its allotted water and of that a part is not yet utilized efficiently. On 
the average about 17,290 cubic feet per second are used to develop 
245,000 horsepower. This company is now extending its plant under 
authority of the department, and in partial compliance with recom- 
mendations embodied in the interim report of March 2, 1918. This 
extension will contain three large, modern generating units of 
highest efficiency, totaling 100,000 horsepower, and will make pos^ 
sible use of the full 19,500 cubic feet of water per second, and greatly 
improve the efficiency of the plant as a whole. The head used is 
that between the Chippawa-Grass Island pool, above the Falls, and 
the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, directly below the Falls. With a further 
extension of the plant operating under this head, and another ex- 
tension covering the head of Whirlpool and Lower Rapids, this di- 
version of 19,500 cubic feet per second can ])& made to produce a. 
total of about 580,000 horsepower. 

69. On the Canadian side a diversion of 36,000 cubic feet per 
second for power development is allowed by treaty. At present it: 
is estimated that 33,325 cubic feet per second are diverted produc- 
ing 388,570 horsepower, which indicates a poor average efficiency. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 79 

70. It is to be recognized that in the matter of determining 
methods for securing greater economy and efficiency of water diver- 
sions, Congress has indicated no apparent intention of delegating 
decision to the Chief of Engineers or the Secretary of War, but has 
provided in pending legislation for a special Federal Power Com- 
mission to exercise jurisdiction in these matters. Study of methods 
is however understood to be called for in this report. 

71. Several schemes for further development or improvement of 
present plants at Niagara Falls have been worked out in con- 
siderable detail during the course of this investigation. They are 
presented more fully in Section F, Appendix D, together with out- 
line plans and estimates. What seemed to be the best ideas and 
suggestions, from Avhatever source, were utilized. More than 20 
other projects which were presented were examined carefully. Data 
for these studies were obtained largely from surveys for this inves- 
tigation and partly from the United States Lake Survey and other 
sources. 

72. The fundamental assumptions as to the general character 
of all the preliminary designs and estimates are set forth in Ap- 
pendix D. There also are given the unit costs adopted, which 
were arrived at with special care. The matter of economic sizes of 
principal parts of the projects was given due consideration. It is 
important to note that such power developments will now cost prob- 
ably more than twice what they would have cost under the market 
conditions of 10 years ago. 

73. Single-stage and tioo-stage projects.— -The most general divi- 
sion of proposed water-power developments at Niagara Falls is into 
single-stage and two-stage projects. The former contemplates using 
the water under a single head of about 310 feet, with the generating 
machinery all in one station. The latter provides for dividing the 
total head into two parts at about the level of the Maid-of-the-Mist 
Pool, using the water first in one station at the side of this pool 
under a head of about 220 feet, and then again under a head of about 
90 feet in a second station situated well down in the Lower Gorge 
toward Lewiston. A few remarks regarding the relative merits 
of the two schemes will be presented farther on. 

74. Proposed plant using entire diversion and total head. — Three 
types of installation for utilizing in a single stage the entire diver- 
sion and total head have been considered. The first provides for 
a power house somewhere on the upper river with water wheels in 
a deep pit, the discharge from the wheels passing to the lower river 
through a tailrace tunnel. The second calls for an intake on the 
upper river and a tunnel from it to a power house in the gorge of 
the lower river. The third is similar to the second, except that the 
tunnel is replaced by an open canal. Plans providing a combination 
of these ideas are possible, but seem to offer no advantages. 

75. Tailrace tunnel proposition. — In such a project the most eco- 
nomical location places the intake and power house in Upper Niagara 
River on or near the shoal just upstream from Grass Island, and the 
tunnel outfall in the Lower Rapids, not far downstream from the 
Devils Hole. The location is shown on Plate No. 33, and certain gen- 
eral outlines of the design on Plate No. 34. A summary of the esti- 
mate appears in Appendix D. The total estimated construction cost, 
on the assumptions previously noted, is $52,220,000. The estimated 



SO DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

total power output is 584,000 horsepower, making the estimated con- 
struction cost $89.40 per horsepower. The estimated time of devel- 
opment is three years for first power and five years for completion. 

76. Pressure tunnel proposition.— -The economic location of this 
project is much the same as that of the tailrace tunnel proposition, 
the intake being on Grass Island Shoal and the power house in the 
Lower Gorge below Riverdale Cemetery. The general plan is shown 
on Plate No. 33 and outline details on Plates Nos. 35, 36, and 37. 
The total horsepower developable by this plant at mean stage with 
20,000 cubic feet per second would be about 588,000 horsepower. The 
estimated cost is $50,803,000, or $86.40 per horsepower. 

77. Power canal proposition. — A thorough study of possible routes 
for a power canal led to the selection of the one indicated on Plate 
No. 39 as the most economical. It extends from an intake just south 
of Conners Island to Riverdale Cemetery, just above Fish Creek. 
A heavy concrete ice diverter is provided across the canal entrance. 
The power house in the gorge is nearly identical with that of the 
pressure tunnel proposition. The estimated total horsepower is 
£91,000, and estimated cost $43,579,000, making the estimated cost 
per horsepower $73.70. 

78. Comparison of preceding projects. — The above-given estimates 
■show the first cost of the canal proposition lower than either tunnel 
proposition. The cost of operation and maintenance would be 
greater, but upon the assumptions in the estimates, not enough to 
overbalance the difference in fixed charges. The Tailrace Tunnel 
plan has several inherent disadvantages which make it of very doubt- 
ful advisability. These are the expected presence of considerable 
ground water in the low-level tunnel during construction, the diffi- 
culty of unwatering the tunnel in case of accident or needed repairs, 
and the difficulty of regulating surges in the tunnel. The most im- 
portant objection to the Pressure Tunnel plan is that it will be neces- 
sary to shut down the entire plant for a short time and drain the 
tunnel in order to repair or remove obstructions from the penstock 
-valves. This difficulty is not regarded as controlling; it could be 
obviated by extending the tunnel up to a surface fore bay, and using 
long penstocks, or by other means. The only formidable objections 
to the Power Canal plan is the presence of an open canal through 
or near the city, and the uncertain costs of maintenance due to 
climatic conditions. There is no reason, however, why it could not be 
made less unsightly than the present canal, and, in fact, even attrac- 
tive in appearance. It would, however, partially prevent the use of 
valuable land for other purposes, form a dividing line disadvanta- 
geous to street and sewer systems, and cause the city or the company 
some extra expense for building and maintaining bridges as the city 
grew. Further consideration and comparison of these propositions 
are given later when the cost of production of power is taken up. 

79. Proposed plants dividing diversion, out using full head in one 
stage. — There seems to be no advantage, but rather a disadvantage in 
using 20,000 cubic feet per second in two or more plants under the 
full head rather than in one plant. In case of a total diversion of, 
say, 40,000 cubic feet per second on the American side in a single 
stage, the advisability of dividing this into two plants should be 
given careful consideration. For a canal project one plant would 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 81 

appear preferable, while for a tunnel project the single tunnel would 
be too large, making a division into two plants advisable. 

80. Proposed plants dividing diversion and dividing head. — A 
number of schemes have been proposed whereby both the head and 
the diversion were divided between several plants. There seems to 
be no advantage in any of these as a wholly new plant. Of those 
which involve the retention of some of the existing plants, only one 
seemed to merit further consideration. The project involves the re- 
tention and use of the present hydraulic canal, and station 3 of the 
hydraulic plant of the Niagara Falls Power Co., and has been named 
the " Compound two-stage proposition." The upper stage portion 
corresponds closely to the project of the Hydraulic Power Co., which 
has been approved by the department. 

81. Compound two-stage proposition. — This proposition includes 
retention and use of present station 3 of the hydraulic plant of the 
Niagara Falls Power Co., a slight enlargement of the present hy- 
draulic canal by deepening, construction of a tunnel paralleling the 
canal from Niagara River at Port Day to a new power house just 
upstream from present station 3, and construction of a long tunnel 
of large diameter conducting the water discharged from these power 
houses to a new power house near Riverdale Cemetery, in the Lower 
Gorge, where it would be used again under a head of about 90 feet. 
A portion of the upper stage part of this project has been under 
construction since June, 1918, under authority of the Secretary of 
War, including deepening the present canal and building a power 
house near station 3 containing three generating units of approxi- 
mately 33,000 horsepower each. Note is made of the fact that plans 
and estimates have been modified from time to time so that the out- 
line plans and estimate herein presented do not correspond exactly 
either to those submitted in the interim report or to those now in 
force at the Niagara Falls Power Co., successor to the Hydraulic 
Power Co. The question of using the water released from the Niagara 
Falls plant in a single development instead of as a part of the com- 
pound two-phase development under the approved plan is being con- 
sidered by the Niagara Falls Power Co. 

82. The general outlines of the plans herein presented are shown 
on Plates Nos. 33, 42, and 45. The estimated cost of the upper stage 
improvement is $21,183,000, which represents a cost of $51.80 per 
horsepower for the total power then available under the upper stage. 
The estimated time of development is three and one-fourth years for 
completion. 

83. The lower stage portion of the plant consists of a large tunnel 
extending from the powerhouses on the shore of the Maid-of-the-Mist 
Pool to the Lower Gorge at Riverdale Cemetery, a power station at 
the lower end of the tunnel, and a large spillway just upstream from 
the lower powerhouse. The estimated cost of the lower stage plant 
is $34,298,000, and the estimated total horsepower is 164,000, making 
the cost per horsepower $209.10. 

84. There are several reasons why it is preferable to take the 
water for the second stage development directly from the upper 
stage powerhouses rather than to permit these latter powerhouses 
to discharge into the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool and then to divert 
the water from this pool near the railroad bridges, thus saving 

27880—21 6 



82 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES ANB NIAGARA RIVER. 

about one mile of tunnel length. The first reason is, it will avoid 
trouble with ice which would undoubtedly be very serious in the 
Maid-of-the-Mist Pool; second, it will prevent the great losses in 
power, reduction in efficiency, and difficulties of operation arising 
from the large range of stage of this pool; third, it will avoid the 
costly and difficult construction of an intake which would have to be 
carried down deep to provide against being unwatered when the 
pool is lowered by diversions of water around the rapids ; and fourth, 
it will avoid again separating trash and weeds from the water. 

85. For the entire combined plant of the compound two-stage 
proposition the estimated cost is $55,481,000. The power then avail- 
able will be about 573,000 horsepower, making the cost $96.80 per 
horsepower for the power then available. 

86. The critical element of this scheme is the operation. By means 
of relief valves, and a by-pass at the upper plant, and also by 
proper electrical interlocking of circuit breakers and controls, it 
must be positively assured that the supply of water to units operat- 
ing at the downstream powerhouse does not fail in order to prevent 
great danger of damage at the lower station. 

87. Proposed plants using full diversion hut dividing head. — A 
two-stage proposition independent of the old power developments 
was planned in outline, as shown on Plates Nos. 33, 46, 47, and 48, 
and was named the " Simple two-stage proposition." Its upper stage 
part is much like the upper stage tunnel portion of the compound two 
stage proposition, while the lower stage portions of the two proposi- 
tions are almost identical except in length of tunnel. The cost of the 
full development is estimated at $61,227,000, the total horsepower 
at 580,000, and the cost per horsepower at $105.60. The estimated 
time of completion of this project is four and one-half years for the 
upper stage and four and one-fourth for the lower stage. They 
might be built simultaneously or separately, as desired. 

88. Proposed power development combined with ship canal. — In an 
earlier part of this report, under the caption, "Proposed navigation 
canals, Lake Erie to Lake Ontario," mention was made of various 
routes for a canal in United States territory connecting Lakes Erie 
and Ontario, which have been proposed during the past 100 years or 
more, and the fact was brought out that the La Salle-Lewiston route 
proposed by the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Water- 
ways in 1900 still offers the greatest advantages for such a waterway 
and the lowest cost. The estimates given in these earlier paragraphs 
cover a navigation canal only. The La Salle-Lewiston route offers the 
greatest advantages also for a combined power and ship canal. In 
order to provide for a diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second for 
power through such a canal without dangerously high currents, it is 
necessary to make the cross section much larger than is necessary for 
the ship canal which provides for no power development. The cross 
section proposed is 400 f ee,t wide by 30 feet deep in shallow cuttings, 
and 300 feet wide by 40 feet in deep cuttings. The mean current in 
such a canal would be 2.3 miles per hour. 

89. Under the plans presented in Appendix D, and on plates Nos. 
49 to 51, the water for power generation is taken from the side of the 
ship canal about 3,000 feet above the upper locks through a long row 
of submerged arches piercing a massive concrete wall. From the inlet 
bay behind the arches a short-power canal conducts the water to a 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 83 

fore bay at the edge of the bluff just downstream from River dale 
Cemetery. The power house in the Gorge is similar to that of the 
power canal proposition. The estimated cost of the entire project 
is $198,412,000, which is $324.70 per horsepower for the estimated 
total capacity of 646,000 horsepower. The cost of the part necessitated 
for power purposes, including excavation of the excess cross section of 
canal, is estimated at $93,000,000, or $97.50 per horsepower. The 
time of construction is estimated at 8 to 10 years. 

90. The combined ship and power canal, described above, is esti- 
mated to cost $19,833,000 more than the sum of the costs of a 200- 
foot ship canal for navigation only, and the power-canal proposition 
previously described ; and to produce 20,000 more horsepower. 

91. Plants proposed by various interests. — Careful consideration 
has been given to projects presented by the Hydraulic Power Co., 
Niagara Falls Power Co., Empire Power Corporation, Hugh L. 
Cooper & Co., Leonard H. Davis for Union Carbide Co., Niagara 
Gorge Power Co., T. Kennard Thompson, and others. Many of 
these projects are of great merit, while others appear to have little 
or none. Brief descriptions and comments are given in Appendix D, 
section F 9. It is believed that there is nothing of particular value 
in the projects which is not embodied in the various propositions 
already presented, some of the ideas already presented having come 
directly from the propositions submitted by the parties named above 
in this paragraph. 

92. Comparison of proposed developments. — The costs given in the 
preceding paragraphs covering the various projects do not include 
the entire capital costs, nor even the whole of what might be termed 
construction costs. Thus the general overhead items, properly part 
of construction costs, which have been omitted in each case, are costs 
of promoting interest in the proposition, of obtaining funds, of or- 
ganizing a managing company, and of legal services involved in pro- 
motion, financing, and organizing. The fundamental item of pur- 
chase of any necessary rights from existing power companies has 
not been included. The development expense involved in building 
up a market for power consumption, and making the enterprise a 
going concern, also properly a part of capital cost, has been omitted. 
The costs given are called construction costs. They include pur- 
chase of necessary land and rights of way, and construction required 
in providing a plant to produce electric energy at generator voltage 
on the bus bars of the power station. All expense pertaining to trans- 
formation and transmission of electric energy has been omitted. 

93. The omissions just mentioned have appreciable effects on the 
capital cost of each proposition, and are unequal in their effects on 
different propositions. There are differences in the probable operat- 
ing costs also. To make a comparison of the propositions which 
takes into account in so far as possible the differences thus arising, 
an estimate has been made of the cost of producing power in each 
case. 

94. Any proposition except the compound two-stage, could be made 
a development of a second 20,000 cubic feet per second, the first 20,000 
second-feet having been developed, under a two or more permittee 
cooperation plan. Assuming a load factor of 90 per cent and a power 
factor of 90 per cent and omitting fixed charges on the original over- 
head expenses and also fixed charges on the original development 



84 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

expense, the cost per horsepower per annum on the bus bars in the 
power station is estimated as shown in Table No. 4: 

Table No. 4. — Power development by second diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per 

second. 



No. 



Proposition. 



Power Canal (par. 77) 

Pressure Tunnel (par. 76) . 
Tailrace Tunnel (par. 75). 
Simple two-stage (par. 87) 



Esti- 
mated 
cost per 
horse- 
power per 
annum. 



$10. 00 
11.30 
11.60 
13. 9C 



These are rough estimates only, and are not as accurate as the con- 
struction cost estimates previously given, being based on less reliable 
data. They serve, however, to indicate the relative advantages of the 
different propositions and are believed to be worthy of careful con- 
sideration. They are probably all much lower per horsepower per 
annum than the ultimate actual cost of delivering power on the 
premises of the most favorably situated customer, because of The 
items of cost which have not been included. 

95. It is to be assumed that it might be desirable to adopt a one-or- 
more-permittee independent plan, under which the first diversion of 
20,000 cubic feet of water per second is to be regarded as not de- 
veloped. In such case any one of the propositions might be employed, 
but the costs would necessarily be increased by the amount required 
to compensate any interests involved. With this condition added to 
the assumptions involved in table No. 4, production costs have been 
estimated as shown in table No. 5. 

Table No. 5.— Power development by first diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second. 



No. 



Proposition. 



Power Canal (par. 77) 

Pressure Tunnel (par. 76) 

Tailrace Tunnel (par. 75) 

Simple two-stage (par. 87) 

Compound two-stage (par. 81) 



Esti- 
mated 
cost per 
horse- 
power 

per 
annum. 



$14.90 
16.30 
15.70 
18.00 
17.00 



The comments with regard to Table No. 4 apply with equal force 
to Table No. 5. 

96. Two-stage versus single-stage project. — As regards financing, 
a two-stage development has a decided advantage over a single-stage 
development in that only the upper stage need be developed at first, 
nearly two-thirds of the total ultimate power being provided at 
about half the total ultimate cost. This is approximately true of 
either the compound or single two-stage propositions, in lessening 
the capital cost for the time being and thus keeping down the fixed 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 85 

charges. Moreover, first power could be produced sooner, and less 
unproductive expenditure would have to be carried. This would 
lead to a sounder finanical condition during construction; and so, 
probably, to the flotation of bonds on better terms. 

97. The matter of fixed charges due to costs of promotion, organi- 
zation, purchase of rights, development of market, and going con- 
cern, enter into the question of financing to an extent not predeter- 
minable. 

98. In discussing the various propositions, the production cost only 
has been dwelt upon. A chance for profit is essential to the best 
interests of such an enterprise in order to induce men to undertake 
the risks involved, and to spur them on to their best endeavors. As 
regards profits, and the accumulation of an undivided surplus avail- 
able for reinvestment in the development, during the period of con- 
struction, the two-stage plan is superior to the single-stage plan. 

99. Effect of rate of power absorption. — In comparing the relative 
merits of the single-stage and two-stage propositions, a very impor- 
tant consideration is the effect of rate of absorption of power. By 
rate of absorption of power is meant the total quantity of power 
which will be demanded and used in any year, over and above what 
was used in the preceding year. The estimates heretofore given were 
based on wartime demands for power, assuming that any power 
developed at Niagara Falls wouldrfind immediate use in industry as 
soon as it was produced. The peace time rate of absorption in the 
past has been less than half as great. When power is absorbed less 
rapidly, construction interest ultimately amounts to more. In this 
respect the two-stage plan is decidedly superior to the single-stage 
plan, and the advantage increases as the rate of absorption of power 
decreases. 

100. Comparison of ultimate incomes. — What a hydro-electric gen- 
erating station has to sell is electric energy, expressed in kilowatt- 
hours, horsepower hours, or horsepower -years, and the ultimate num- 
ber of kilowatt-hours produced is a measure of the ultimate income 
obtained. The two-stage proposition has an advantage, during the 
first few years after construction is commenced, over the single-stage 
proposition, because power is produced so much sooner. As time 
goes on, however, the single-stage production overtakes and sur- 
passes, the two-stage production unless the rate of absorption of 
power is very low. If this comparison is made on the basis of total 
amount of energy produced per dollar of construction cost, the power 
canal proposition overtakes the compound two-stage proposition in 
13^ years, and thereafter surpasses it. Such comparisons are depend- 
ent on the various items of the estimates of cost and time of develop- 
ment, and are of little value for the reason that the computed time 
in which one will overtake the other varies a great deal with com- 
paratively slight changes in these estimates. 

101. Summary of comparison of single-stage and two-stage prop- 
ositions. — To sum up the comparison of the single-stage and two- 
stage propositions : 

There is shown in favor of the single-stage proposition — 

1. Lower construction cost per horsepower. 

2. Lower unit cost of power production. 

3. Greater total financial return per dollar invested, except in case absorp- 
tion of the power developed takes place at a very slow rate. 






86 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT TAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

There is shown in favor of the two-stage proposition — 

1. Increasing advantage as rate of power absorption decreases. 

2. Superiority of compound two-stage proposition at very low power absorp- 
tion rate. 

3. Easier financing. 

4. First power produced sooner. 

5. Better credit maintained. 

6. Total return from sale of power greater for first few years. 

7. In case of suspension of construction activities before completion there 
would be (a) smaller capital cost per horsepower produced; (&) less unproduc- 
tive expenditures carried. 

102. The foregoing analysis indicates that for utilizing the present 
authorized diversion of 20,000 cubic feet of water per second from 
Niagara River there is very little to choose between the compound 
two-stage proposition and the power canal proposition. 

103. The study further shows that for a second development, de- 
signed to utilize an additional and similar diversion of 20,000 cubic 
feet per second, a power canal proposition similar to that presented 
is less costly than any other. 

104. The power canal proposed would not be navigable, and it 
could not properly be made a part of a navigable waterway. No 
combination of power development with navigable canal from upper 
to lower river is justifiable on the basis of power production. The 
La Salle to Lewiston route is the best for a ship canal. It would be 
cheaper to construct this canal of 200-foot width and 30-foot depth 
for navigation use only, and also construct the canal for power pur- 
poses only, than to construct the combined power and ship canal. 
(Par. 90.) 

105. Previously in this report, it has been pointed out that 40,000 
cubic feet of water per second may safely be diverted around the 
Whirlpool and Lower Rapids, this being the total for both sides. 
The wisdom of diverting any more in the light of the present knowl- 
edge is doubted, and it is felt that this amount should be diverted 
first, and observation of the resultant effects noted before further 
diversions are permitted. It was also pointed out that at least 
80,000 cubic feet of water per second might be diverted around the 
Falls from the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool to the Maid-of-the-Mist 
Pool, this latter diversion being permissible only on condition that 
adequate remedial works be constructed just above Horseshoe Falls. 

106. In dealing with the question of the development of power 
at Niagara Falls the purpose of this report has been to so present 
the actual conditions as they exist, the possible solution of the prob- 
lem as deduced from those conditions and the solutions presented 
by interested parties independently, as to enable the constituted au- 
thority to take such action either on the whole subject or any one 
phase of it, as may seem best. 

107. Effects of diversions upon lake levels, — It is well understood 
by engineers who have studied the question, that each of the Great 
Lakes constitutes a natural storage basin discharging through an 
outlet, and that any increased flow of water from the basin through 
an enlarged original outlet, or through a new outlet, causes a lowering 
of the lake surface. Such increased flow is a diversion of water from 
the lake. The amount of lowering can not be measured directly by 
water gauges on the lakes, as the elevation of the lake surface is sub- 
ject to constantly varying fluctuations due to various other causes. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 87 

If, however, the laws governing the discharge of the connecting rivers 
are known, the amount of lowering can be computed by simple 
mathematical processes. These discharge laws have been determined 
by the United States Lake Survey from a long series of measure- 
ments on the outflow rivers. 

108. The outlets on the lakes. — The outlet of Lake Superior is 
through the St. Marys River. The natural flow of this river has 
been changed by the construction of the piers of the International 
Railroad Bridge, by filling in along both shores, by the construction 
of canals and locks on both sides of the river, by the diversion of 
water for power development, and by the construction of regulating 
works. At the present time only about 25 per cent of the original 
cross-section of the rapids and 33 per cent of the discharging ca- 
pacity is open to free flow. Present plans and construction con- 
template further extension of the regulating works to the full 
width of the open river. When these are complete the outflow from 
Lake Superior will be brought under full control. 

109. The natural outlet of Lakes Michigan and Huron is through 
the St. Clair River. This river has but little fall, and the discharge 
from the lake depends not only upon the elevation of Lake Huron 
but also upon that of Lake St. Clair, which in turn is affected by 
changes in the elevation of Lake Erie. There appears to have been 
no important change in the regimen of this river during the last 
24 years. 

110. Lake St. Clair discharges through the Detroit River. This 
river is of the same type as the St. Clair and its flow depends upon 
the elevations of Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie. Comparatively few 
discharge measurements have been made on this river, and its hy- 
draulic relations are not as accurately known as those of the other 
rivers. There is some evidence that a change in the regimen of this 
river occurred about 1890. Another change was made by the build- 
ing of the Livingstone Channel cofferdam in 1908. When the coffer- 
dam was opened in 1912 it was found that the remaining portions 
of the dam and the various dumps compensated for the excavation 
of the channel, and the discharge laws were the same as before the 
cofferdam was built. 

111. The Niagara River is the natural outlet of Lake Erie. The 
discharge of this river depends upon the elevation of Lake Erie, but 
is modified somewhat by the diversion of water from the river itself. 
Only very minor changes in the regimen of this river have occurred 
in recent years. 

112. The natural outlet of Lake Ontario is through the St. Law- 
rence River. The controlling section is the Galop Rapids, the dis- 
charge of which is governed by the elevation of Lake Ontario. Va- 
rious works in connection with the Canadian improvements to naviga- 
tion have altered the regimen of these rapids materially at different 
times. Since 1903 conditions have remained constant. 

113. The discharge equations of all these rivers have been deter- 
mined by the United States Lake Survey, and are presented in Sec- 
tion G 2 of Appendix E. 

114. Effect of ice on river flow and lake levels. — The equations for 
determining the flow through the various connecting rivers of the 
Great Lakes system apply only during open season conditions. Dur- 
ing the winter months, when there is more or less ice in the rivers, the 



88 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

flow is retarded, this retardation amounting in some of the rivers 
at times to as much as 50 per cent of the normal flow. During the 
three winter months the flow of the St. Marys River is retarded on 
the average to the extent of about 2,800 cubic feet per second. The 
effect on Lake Superior is only a few hundredths of a foot. 

115. On the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers the effects of ice are 
more serious. Jams or blockades are of frequent occurrence, and at 
times hold back large quantities of water. The estimated effect for 
the two rivers is a reduction in the yearly mean flow amounting to 
about 10,000 cubic feet per second. The effect is to raise the level 
of Lake Huron during the winter months and lower Lake Erie. 
During the summer an increase in the river flow results which tends 
to restore the normal levels, but before equilibrium is attained an- 
other winter intervenes, and thus Lake Huron is maintained at a 
higher level than it would be if no ice were formed. 

116. The ice effect on the Niagara River is not very well de- 
termined, but is known to be quite small. The estimate is that it 
keeps the yearly mean stage of Lake Erie about seven-hundredths 
of a foot higher than it would otherwise be. 

117. On the St. Lawrence River a good deal of data as to the ice 
effect is available. The total ice effect is estimated to be equivalent 
to a reduction of 4,400 cubic feet per second in the yearly mean dis- 
charge. This leaves Lake Ontario high in the spring, but owing 
to the small area and large outflow of the lake, normal conditions 
are practically restored before the following winter. 

118. The question of ice effect has not always been well understood, 
and its incorrect treatment has in the past often led to erroneous 
conclusions regarding the hydrology of the Great Lakes system. 
An admirable analysis of these effects is given in section G3 of Ap- 
pendix E. 

119. Hydrological data. — An analysis of the hydrology of the 
Great Lakes was made. This was based on extensive rainfall records 
of the United States and Canada, the stream run-off reports of the 
United States Geological Survey and the Hydro-Electric Power 
Commission of Ontario, and the river discharge measurements and 
water gauge records of the United States Lake Survey. The net 
supply for each lake was computed for the period 1905-1914, in- 
clusive, and from this the outflow during the same period was sub- 
tracted. The result was the evaporation from the lake surface. 
These evaporation values are reasonably consistent among themselves, 
and agree with the meager evaporation data available. This indi- 
cates that the adopted discharge formulas are consistent, and that 
there are no gross discrepancies or omissions in the hydrologic data. 

These studies are described and the results tabulated in section 
G 4 of Appendix E. 

120. Effects of present diversions. — The ultimate effect of diver- 
sions upon the levels of the lake from which they are drawn is a func- 
tion of the rate of diversion and of the law of discharge through the 
main outlet. When these are known the lowering effect of the di- 
version can be computed. The discharge laws are well determined 
from the lake survey measurements, and the rates of diversion have 
been carefully estimated from all the available data. Using these 
quantities the effects on the different lakes have been computed for 
high, mean, and low stages of the lakes. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 89 



121. With conditions as they were in 1896, Lake Superior would 
have been! lowered nearly 3 feet by the present diversions for 
power and navigation. That the surface has not been so lowered is 
due to various obstructions placed in the rapids, including the con- 
trolling works. It is expected that when the controlling works are 
completed, and the several power canals are enlarged to ultimate 
proposed capacity, the needs of navigation can be served, a minimum 
of 60,000 cubic feet per second can be used for power, and the level 
of Lake Superior can be regulated within a maximum range of 2.5 
feet, and ordinarily within a range of 1.5 feet, or between elevations 
602.1 and 603.6. 

122. The only diversion from Lake Michigan-Huron which has 
any important effect upon lake levels is that of the Sanitary District 
of Chicago. This diversion through the Chicago Drainage Canal 
amounts to a yearly average of about 8,800 cubic feet per second. 
An ultimate diversion of 14,000 cubic feet per second through this 
canal and through the Calumet- Sag branch, now under construction, 
is contemplated. The diversion at Chicago causes a lowering of all 
water levels from the lower sills of the locks at Sault Ste. Marie 
to tide water in the St. Lawrence River. The amount of lowering 
caused by the present diversion at mean stage is shown in table 
No. 6. 

Table No. 6. — Lowering in feet at mean stage due to present diversions of water from 

the Great Lakes. 



Diversion. 


Amount, 
in cubic 
feet per 
second. 


Mich- 
igan- 
Huron. 


St. Clair. 


Erie. 


Niagara 

River at 

Chip- 

pawa. 


1 St. Law- 
rence 
Ontario, j River at 
1 Lock No. 
25. 


Chicago Drainage Canal 


8,800 

4,500 

700 

1,000 

50,885 


0.43 
.03 


0.35 
.09 

.01 


0.41 0.23 
.21 .12 


0.42 


0.62 


Welland Canal 




Black Rock Canal 


.03 








New York Barge Canal 




.01 

.10 


.03 







Niagara power companies 


.01 


.05 


.60 










Total 




.47 


.50 


.76 


.98 


.42 


.62 









123. From Lake Erie the Welland Canal diverts about 4,500 cubic 
feet per second, and the Black Rock Ship Canal about 700 cubic feet 
per second. These diversions lower Lakes Michigan, Huron, St. 
Clair, and Erie. At Niagara Falls six different companies use water 
for power development. Some of these cause a lowering in Lakes 
Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, and Erie, while others, which divert 
water below the first cascade, have only a local effect. The amount of 
these lowerings is given in Table No. 6. 

124. There are no diversions from Lake Ontario or the upper St. 
Lawrence River except a small amount for the Canadian canals. 
The building of the Gut Dam in 1903 has permanently raised these 
waters by about 0.56 foot. Below the Galop Rapids there are several 
diversions which cause local lowering in certain parts of the St. 
Lawrence. 

125. The whole matter of the effects of present diversions upon 
lake levels is treated in Section G 5 of Appendix E. 

126. Effects of proposed diversions. — The effects of the proposed 
increases in the diversions at Sault Ste. Marie will be completely 



90 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

neutralized by the operation of the completed controlling works. 
At Chicago the proposed increase of the diversion to 14,000 cubic 
feet per second would increase the present lowering by more than 50 
per cent. The completion of the new Welland Canal and the in- 
creased use of the Barge Canal will cause farther lowerings. If 
the diversion at Niagara Falls be ultimately increased to 80,000 
cubic feet per second and no compensating works provided, there 
would be a very large lowering of the river, and a notable amount 
in the lakes above. The computed lowering at mean stage which 
would result from the various proposed diversions is shown in Table 
No. 7. 

Table No. 7. — -Effect in feet at mean stage of proposed diversions from the Great Lakes. 



Diversion. 


Proposed 
increase. 


Lakes 
Michi- 
gan and 
Huron. 


Lake 
St. Clair. 


Lake 

Erie. 


Niagara 

River at 

Chippa^a. 


Lake 
Ontario. 


St. Law- 
rence 

Eiver at 
Lock 

No. 25. 


Chicago Drainage Canal 

Welland Canal 


5,200 

1,000 

700 

48,000 


0.25 
.01 


0.21 
.02 


0.23 
.05 
.01 
.22 


0.13 
.03 
.02 

1.25 


0.24 


0.37 


New York Barge Canal 






Niagara power companies 


.03 


.10 












Total effect of proposed in- 




.29 
.47 


.33 
.50 


.51 
.76 


1.43 
.98 


.24 
.42 


.37 


Total effect of present diversions. 




.62 








Grand total 




.76 


.83 


1.27 


2.41 


.66 


.99 









This matter is treated at greater length in section G 6 of Appen- 
dix E. 

127. Remedial works. — These lowerings of the lake levels cause 
a serious loss to the navigation interests and the general public, the 
nature and amount of which is discussed later in this report. The 
restoration and maintenance of the natural levels therefore becomes a 
matter of importance. 

128. There are three general methods by which a restoration of 
depths on the lakes may be sought — first, the deepening of all harbors 
and channels affected by the artificial lowering of water levels; 
second, the construction of regulating works in the outlets of the 
lakes to raise the levels of the lakes and to control their elevations 
within fixed limits ; third, the contraction of the outlets by means of 
fixed obstructions which will raise the levels of the lakes without 
greatly affecting their natural fluctuations. 

129. The first method is considered altogether too expensive, and 
has other unsatisfactory features. It is recommended only for a few 
special cases. The second has frequently been proposed, but upon 
investigation it is found to be less simple than it appears. It in- 
volves obstructions to navigation and difficulties with ice. More- 
over, it has been shown that efficient regulation of one lake tends to 
aggravate the fluctuations of those below it. This system has been 
adopted at the Soo, where circumstances are particularly favorable 
to it, but its suitability for the lower lakes is problematical. The 
third method is the cheapest and simplest, and is considered the 
most desirable. It is already operating successfully in the case of the 
Gut Dam. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 91 

130. In section G 7 of Appendix E the works needed at various 
places to compensate for the effects of all diversions, present or pros- 
pective, are considered in some detail It is concluded that the project 
is entirely feasible and that the expense will not be excessive in 
view of the benefits received. The works involved include wing walls 
or other methods of narrowing the channels at the head of each of 
the St. Lawrence Eapids, a long submerged rock weir above the 
rapids at Niagara Falls, and a series of such weirs near the head of 
the Niagara River and in the upper reaches of the St. Clair River. 
To effect the required deepening in Lake St. Clair and at the head of 
the Detroit River it was thought that dredging would be most satis- 
factory. 

131. The design of these works suggested above must be preceded 
by extensive surveys and studies. The building of models on a fairly 
large scale for experimentation prior to final adoption of designs 
appears desirable. The construction of the final works should be pre- 
ceded and accompanied by the maintenance of a number of automatic 
water gauges at critical points on the rivers. It is highly desirable 
Chat these gauges be installed as soon as possible in order that sev- 
eral years' records may be available before construction is com- 
menced. 

132. Economic effect of diversions upon navigation. — The Great 
Lakes system forms one of the world's greatest highways for water- 
borne transportation. The Great Lakes fleet moves more than 100,- 
000,000 tons of freight each season. The greater part of this com- 
merce is in the so-called " bulk freight," consisting of iron ore, coal, 
grain, and limestone. This is carried in a peculiar type of vessel 
known as the " bulk freighter." The bulk freighters are highly spe- 
cialized boats which have been developed by the conditions of the 
lake trade. These vessels are from 280 to 625 feet in length and 
have a carrying capacity of from 3,000 to 15,000 short tons. Most 
of them can be loaded to a draft of about 22 feet. They are the 
most economical carriers in the world, their rates usually being less 
than one-tenth of a cent per ton-mile, and sometimes only a third of 
that amount. Rail rates are several times as much, often being at 
least 10 times the water rates. The annual saving over the cost of 
moving this same freight by rail exceeds a quarter of a billion 
dollars. 

133. Under the conditions of 100 years ago, the only ships which 
could navigate the Great Lakes system and enter the harbors were 
small vessels drawing about 5 feet of water. The United States has 
spent about $135,000,000 in improving the harbors, deepening and 
straightening the channels, and building locks on the St. Marys and 
Niagara Rivers. The Canadians have done similar work on a smaller 
scale. As a result there is now available a ship channel through and 
between the upper lakes with a controlling depth of 21 feet at mean 
stage. All the important harbors have corresponding depths. From 
Lake Erie through the Welland Canal, Lake Ontario, and the St. 
Lawrence River to tidewater at Montreal, the controlling depth is 
14 feet. 

134. The immense traffic of the Great Lakes is a direct result of 
these improvements of navigation, and the movement of such large 
amounts of freight at such low rates is directly due to the greater 



92 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER.. 

depths thus made available. Vessel owners keep close track of the 
stage of water, and take advantage of every period of high stage to 
load their boats to greater draft. During times when low stages 
prevail they are correspondingly handicapped and the carrying ca- 
pacity of the fleet is materially reduced. 

135. As already shown, the existing diversions of water from the 
Great Lakes have caused a considerable lowering of the lake levels,, 
and further diversions, with consequent further lowerings, are con- 
templated. The average loss caused by a reduction of one-tenth of 
a foot in the available draft amounts to $44.57 for one trip of a bulk 
freighter on the upper lakes, or $590,000 per year for the whole fleet. 
For the smaller vessels engaged in trade through the Welland and 
St. Lawrence Canals the average loss caused by a lowering of one- 
tenth of a foot is $41.40 for each trip and $70,000 per year for the 
whole fleet. 

136. The amounts by which the various lakes have already been 
lowered by existing diversions have been given in Table No. 6. The 
total loss to the bulk freight trade caused by this lowering is esti- 
mated at $4,713,000 per year. If all the contemplated diversions 
listed in Table No. 7 should be effected the resulting lowering would 
increase the annual loss to $7,825,000. 

137. Of the loss now occurring, $2,866,000 per year is due to the 
diversion of 8,800 cubic feet per second by the Sanitary District of 
Chicago. This is 60 per cent of the total loss and is $326 per year 
for each cubic foot per second of diversion. The diversion of the 
power companies at Niagara Falls taking water from points above 
the first Cascade, equivalent in effect to the diversion of 23,000 cubic 
feet per second from the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool, causes an 
annual loss of $526,000. This is 11 per cent of the total loss and is 
$23 per year for each cubic foot per second of effective diversion. 

138. The total loss to navigation amounts to a direct tax upon the 
transportation of iron ore, coal, and grain — that is, upon steel, fuel r 
and food, three fundamental necessities of modern life. The Great 
Lakes traffic is an absolutely essential part of the American steel 
industry, and plays an important part in the distribution of grain 
and coal. The bulk freighter of the lakes carries each year about 
80 per cent of the Nation's production of iron ore, more than 20 per 
cent of the combined wheat crops of the United States and Canada, 
and about 5 per cent of the coal production of the United States. 
The cost of all these products to the general public is increased by 
the diversions, 

A thorough study of this subject is presented in Appendix H, 
Section I. 

139. Effect upon riparian interests. — The effect of diversions of 
water from the Great Lakes upon riparian interests on these lakes 
and their connecting waters is small. The lower lake levels uncover 
a slightly greater width of beach, but this is usually neither an ad- 
vantage nor a disadvantage to the riparian owner. In a few places, 
notably on Maumee and Saginaw Bays and a£ St. Clair Flats, there 
is lowland which is somewhat increased- in value when low stages of 
the lakes permit the harvesting of marsh hay. There is also a small 
amount of low-lying land which is very valuable for truck garden- 
ing, but is so low that in years of high stage it is too wet for use. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 93 

Any lowering of the lake levels works to the advantage of the own- 
ers of these lands. 

140. In the sheltered waters of the Great Lakes the lowering of 
water levels works serious hardship to many of the riparian owners. 
In such places there are a great many boathouses, dredged slips, 
and small private clocks. These are built to suit the prevailing stages 
of the lake, and their value is much impaired at low stages. 

141. With the data at hand it is impossible to evaluate these vari- 
ous advantages and disadvantages of the effects of diversions. The 
experience of the War Department has been that many more com- 
plaints are received because of low stage than because of high. It is 
believed that this matter of riparian interests constitutes but a very 
minor part of the problem of lake levels. It is discussed in somewhat 
greater detail in Section H 2 of Appendix F. 

142. Value to Chicago of its diversion. — In Section B 3 of Ap- 
pendix F the question of the value to Chicago of its diversion. is 
treated. There are no unbiased data covering this matter in exist- 
ence, and the estimates herein given are based upon the testimony 
of the expert witnesses of the Sanitary District of Chicago in the 
case of the United States v. the Sanitary District of Chicago. The 
ex parte nature of this testimony is at ieast partly counteracted by 
the rise in wages and prices which has occcurred since these witnesses 
made their studies. 

143. The general estimate arrived at was that the present diversion 
of 8,800 cubic feet per second has a value to the city of Chicago of 
about $7,000,000 a year, or $800 per cubic foot per second per annum. 

144. Value to the public of the effect on power production. — The 
various diversions which are used to develop electric power, produce 
power at a much lower cost than is possible with plants developing 
power from coal. It is estimated that a new, 300-foot head plant at 
Niagara Falls could sell large blocks of continuous power at the 
switchboard at generator voltage for $19 per horsepower-year, while 
a steam-electric station of the most modern type would have to charge 
$50.70 for the same class of power. The saving by the use of hy- 
draulic power is $31.70 per horsepower-year, or $834 a year for each 
cubic foot per second diverted. 

145. The present Niagara developments are less efficient than those 
proposed and develop much less power from a given diversion. The 
value of the water which they now divert is estimated at $500 per 
cubic foot per second, or about $25,000,000 a year for the total 
diversion of the five companies at the Falls. 

146. In addition to this saving of money, there is a further value 
in the conservation of the coal supply of the Nation, and in the 
great impetus which cheap power gives to the various electro-chem- 
ical industries. 

147. The other power diversions on the Great Lakes have a value 
similar in nature, but less in amount, than those at Niagara Falls. 

148. Comparison of effects and values. — The various studies pre- 
sented in the earlier parts of Section H show that the present diver- 
sion of 8,800 cubic feet per second through the Chicago Drainage 
Canal has an estimated value to the people of the Sanitary District 
of Chicago of perhaps $7,000,000 a year. This diversion damages 
some riparian interests and is of value to others. On the whole, 



94 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

riparian interests are probably more damaged than benefited. The 
damage to the shipping trade of the Great Lakes is estimated at 
$2,866,000 a year. 

149. It appears that at present the total benefits derived from the 
diversion exceed the total damages about in the ratio of 5 to 2, but 
unfortunately the benefits and damages are not received by the same 
people. It is no satisfaction to the one who is injured to be assured 
that some one else is benefiting in a greater degree. A reasonable 
expenditure by the Sanitary District for compensating works will 
be sufficient to remedy nearly all the harmful results in so far as navi- 
gation interests are concerned. Complete estimates of the cost of 
compensation were not made, but $500,000 a year should certainly 
be sufficient to care for compensation for the Chicago diversions for 
the next one or two decades. If the time comes, however, as it may 
in 20 or 30 years, when the diversions at Niagara Falls are limited 
because of the lack of water in Niagara River, the value of water at 
Niagara Falls will have to be charged against the Chicago diversion. 
This has been given as $834 per cubic foot per second per annum, 
the value to Chicago being only $800. How these values would 
change during the next 20 or 30 years is a matter of speculation, but 
it seems reasonable to suppose that the value of coal will increase, 
making water power more valuable, while advancements in sanitary 
science will render the use of water for sewage dilution less urgent, 
and hence less valuable. A similar case may arise in connection with 
St. Lawrence power developments. It thus appears that in due 
course of time the value of this diversion per cubic foot per second 
is likely to be much greater than at present for power uses along 
the Niagara and St. Lawrence Rivers than for sanitation at Chicago 
and power development in Illinois. 

150. In case of the Niagara diversions the beneficial results of 
the diversion are three or four times as great, while the damage done 
is only one-fifth as much. The estimated figures are — benefits, $25,- 
000,000 per annum ; damages, $526,000 per annum. The annual cost 
of compensating for the effect of these diversions is only a few thou- 
sand dollars. 

151. The other diversions are of minor importance. In each case 
the damage done is small and the estimated cost of compensation is 
small. This cost could easily be borne by those who receive the 
benefit of the diversion. 

152. The adjustment of these conflicting interests hinges mainly 
on the settlement of the long-continued dispute about the Chicago 
diversion. On the one hand are the needs of our greatest inland 
city under its present system of sewage disposal. On the other hand 
are all the riparian, power, and navigation interests of Lakes Michi- 
gan, Huron, St. Clair, Erie, and Ontario and also of the St. Marys 
River below the locks, and the St. Clair, Detroit, Niagara, and the 
St. Lawrence Rivers. The Sanitary District does not dispute the 
fact that other sanitary measure can be adopted, and that other lake 
cities not situated near the summit of a divide are being driven 
to adopt them ; it argues only that the- expense is enormous and 
prohibitive. The Sanitary District no longer denies injury to navi- 
gation on the lakes, and to riparian owners, including those along 
thousands of miles of lake and river shores in Canada; it claims 



DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 95 

only that the actual injury is comparatively slight, and much less 
than the amount claimed by the Federal Government. 

153. If conditions could be restored to those existing in 1890, and 
the city of Chicago should ask permission to divert water for use in 
such a sewage disposal system as they now have, the request would 
and should be refused. It would undoubtedly appear that the bene- 
fits to be obtained would not be commensurate with the damage 
which would be caused. If the question were to be decided solely on 
the basis of the most e«onomical use of the waters of the Great Lakes 
the solution would involve restriction of the diversion to the amount 
required for purposes of navigation, and adoption of other methods 
of sewage disposal. 

154. Unfortunately the matter can not be disposed of in such 
simple manner. The vast sums of money invested by the district 
demand some protection, and the city can not properly be deprived 
of its dilution water until some other method of protecting its water 
supply has been provided. It might be possible, under Congressional 
sanction, to arrange a program for the gradual reduction of the 
diversion and retiring of the bonds, together with a corresponding 
development and substitution of a system of sewage disposal by 
screening, filtration, sterilization, and similar processes. 

155. Another solution would be the authorization of a permanent 
diversion through the Drainage Canal sufficient in amount to satisfy 
the present needs of the disposal system, the district agreeing that 
this amount would never be increased and that the needs of the future 
growth of the city would be satisfied by some different method. Con- 
sideration should be given to the fact that under the existing system 
a diversion of nearly 10,000 cubic feet per second is occasionally re- 
quired to prevent the run-off from violent storms from entering the 
lake, with consequent pollution of the water supply. Under this 
plan the district would be required to pay for the construction, 
operation, and maintenance of remedial works which would maintain 
normal lake levels and prevent the diversion from damaging navi- 
gation or riparian interests, thus compensating the paramount in- 
terest of navigation; and a license fee should be charged to com- 
pensate the general public for the loss of the waterpower which 
could be developed by the use of this water along the Niagara and 
St. Lawrence Rivers, this to be based in general upon the difference 
in the available heads. 

156. International matters involved. — Previous to the appointment 
of the International Waterways Commission there was no interna- 
tional supervision of the use of the waters of the Great Lakes. In 
each country such diversions as were desired were made without con- 
sulting the other country, and usually without any thought of the 
possibility of causing any damage to any one. In the early days 
most of the diversions were small and the international interests 
were affected chiefly in theory rather than by the infliction of any 
actual damage. It is not recalled that either country felt itself ag- 
grieved by any diversion made outside its boundaries. 

157. Between 1890 and 1905 this state of affairs was radically 
altered. The construction of the Chicago Drainage Canal, and of 
the large power developments at Sault Ste. Marie and Niagara 
Falls, aroused public interest in the use of lake waters, while the 
occurrence of unusually low lake stages in the early nineties alarmed 



96 DIVERSION OP WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

the shipping interests. Studies of the relation between diversion 
and lake lowering were undertaken by the Government. In 1902 
the International Waterways Commission was appointed to consider 
such matters, and its action resulted in the negotiation of the treaty 
of 1910 and the appointment of the International Joint Commission. 

158. The International Waterways Commission laid down the fol- 
lowing general principles applicable to the diversion of water from 
the Great Lakes: 

1. In all navigable waters the use for navigation purposes is of primary and 
paramount right. The Great Lakes system on the boundary between the United 
States and Canada and finding its outlet by the St. Lawrence to the sea should 
be maintained in its integrity. 

2. Permanent or complete diversions of navigable waters or their tributary 
streams should only be permitted for domestic purposes and for the use of 
locks in navigation canals. 

3. Diversions can be permitted of a temporary character where the water is 
taken and returned, when such diversions do not interfere in any way with 
the interests of navigation. In such cases each country is to have a right to 
diversion in equal quantities. 

6. A permanent joint commission can deal much more satisfactorily with the 
settlement of all disputes arising as to the application of these principles and 
should be appointed. 

159. In the above the term " permanent diversions " is understood 
to mean diversions from the Great Lakes system to some other water- 
shed (e. g. the diversion at Chicago), while "diversions of a tem- 
porary character " is taken to mean diversions of water which is re- 
turned to the Great Lakes system (e. g. the diversions at Niagara 
Falls). The term "domestic purposes" is understood to cover all 
ordinary sanitary uses. 

160. To these principles another may well be added, as follows : 

Diversions of water from tributaries of the Great Lakes, unless the water is 
returned to the same tributary, shall be considered as diversions from the lakes. 

161. Principle 1 is generally recognized by all the parties inter- 
ested. Principle 2 is not disputed, but it is coming to be recognized 
that when such diversions are large they necessitate the construction 
of remedial works which will prevent any serious lowering of the 
lake levels being caused by them. 

162. Principle 3 has been applied to the diversions at Sault Ste. 
Marie, and is recognized as a correct general principle. The present 
treaty with Great Britain, however, makes an exception in the case 
of the Upper Niagara River and allows a diversion of 36,000 cubic 
feet per second in Canada and only 20,000 cubic feet per second in 
the United States. There were good reasons for this discrimination 
at the time the treaty was framed, but some of them no longer exist 
and, if the remedial works described in Appendix C are built, the 
situation will be completely altered and their will remain no reason 
why an equal division of diversions under principle 3 should not be 
made. 

163. There are Canadian diversions from Lake Erie across the 
Niagara Peninsula to Lake Ontario, and anotlier one is proposed. 
Equal American diversions from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario as al- 
lowed by principle 3 would be possible, but from an economic stand- 
point they would be undesirable. For this reason it is felt that no 
further Canadian diversions of this character should be allowed, 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 97 

and that the existing diversions should be limited to the present 
amounts. 

164. Principle 6 has been accepted by both countries, and the In- 
ternational Joint Commission has been in existence for several years. 

165. The principle that diversions from tributaries be considered 
to be diversions from the lakes is needed in the interest of clearness. 
It has usually been followed without comment in discussions of the 
lake levels problem, but it was not incorporated in the treaty. With- 
out it there is a possibility of frustrating the purpose of the treaty 
by making large diversions from tributaries in cases where the In- 
ternational Joint Commission would have forbidden them if they 
were made directly from the lake. In such cases the court procedure 
provided might well be unsatisfactory to those claiming damage. 

166. The construction and maintenance of compensating or regu- 
lating works is another matter which requires international action. 
Such works would affect lake levels within the boundaries of both 
countries. They have often been proposed to correct lake lowerings 
which were the result of several diversions, some in one country and 
some in the other. It appears desirable that such works should be 
constructed under joint supervision and paid for by an equitable 
international apportionment of the cost. 

167. The same statements apply to the remedial works in the 
Horseshoe Eapids, which are described in Appendix C. 

168. Treaty provisions. — Matters pertaining to the diversion of 
water from boundary waters between the United States and Canada 
are now controlled by a treaty ratified on May 5, 1910. The text 
of this treaty is quoted in full in Section 1 2 of Appendix G. In the 
interest of clearness, and to avoid possible future complications, it 
is deemed advisable to modify Articles II and III of this treaty so 
as to extend the jurisdiction of the International Joint Commission 
to cover the diversion of water from streams and lakes tributary to 
boundary waters. 

169. Article V of the treaty deals with the diversions of water 
from the Niagara River for power production. For reasons given in 
Appendix G, the considerations which caused the unequal division 
of water between the two countries, as provided in this article, are 
no longer operative. Under plans outlined in Appendices C and D 
a much greater diversion than that authorized in Article V can be 
allowed, while at the same time the scenic preservation will be cared 
for in the best possible manner. A new treaty should provide for 
the diversions stated in Appendix C, namely, each country to be 
allowed to divert 20,000 cubic feet per second around the Falls and 
Lower Eapids, and 20,000 cubic feet per second additional around 
the Falls alone. It would be well to provide also for the possibility 
that operation under this plan may show still greater diversions to 
be permissible. 

170. A modification of the introductory sentence of Article V is 
also desirable. It now reads that the parties consider that " it is 
expedient to limit the diversion of waters from the Niagara River 
so that the level of Lake Erie and the flow of the stream shall not be 
appreciably affected." It is an historical fact that one of the chief 
reasons for the negotiation of this treaty was the desire to preserve 

27880—21 T 



98 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER.. 

the scenic beauty of the Falls and rapids ; therefore this reason might 
well be added to those given in the text quoted. 

171. In the attempt to operate large hydroelectric plants very 
close to an authorized limit of diversion, occasional accidental peak 
loads may cause an unintentional overstepping of the limit. If 
these are not permitted the plant must habitually be operated at less 
than the allowed load, thus reducing the total output of power. 
For this reason it would seem that the treaty, and the permits is- 
sued under it, should not penalize such occasional accidental excess 
diversions. 

172. It is believed that no modification of the treaty will be re- 
quired in order to allow the construction of compensating works 
other than the " remedial works " in the Horseshoe Rapids. Such 
matters can be handled by joint legislative action in the two coun- 
tries, and by the International Joint Commission. 

173. Interests of various States. — Eight of our States and two 
provinces of the Dominion of Canada abut upon the waters of the 
Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, and are affected by diversions 
of these waters. Six other States on the Mississippi River below the 
point where the diversion of the Chicago Drainage Canal is received 
have at least a theoretical interest in that diversion. These States 
and provinces have a total population of about 61,000,000 people, 
containing 53 per cent of the population of the continental United 
States and 63 per cent of the population of the Dominion of Canada. 

174. The State of Missouri claimed a vital interest in the Chicago 
diversion on the ground that it endangered the health of residents of 
St. Louis and other places. AVhen they sought relief by a suit in 
equity, the Supreme Court of the United States dismissed the suit 
" without prejudice " on the ground that the plaintiffs had failed to 
prove damage. It is not impossible that the case may some day be 
reopened. 

175. The other States on the Mississippi have but a theoretical 
interest in the Chicago diversion. The aid which it affords to low- 
water navigation is very small above the mouth of the Missouri 
River and trifling below that point. The additional height of floods 
which it causes is of no practical importance. 

176. The States abutting on the Great Lakes all suffer damage 
from the diversions made in two of them, namely, Illinois and New 
York. The nature and extent of this damage has already been dis- 
cussed. 

177. Such controversies as arise from these diversions, where a 
number of States are damaged by diversions which benefit another 
State appear to fall within the jurisdiction of the Federal Govern- 
ment. This view has not always been accepted, and the claim of 
Illinois that the diversion of water from the lake adjacent to its 
shores is a purely domestic matter with which neither the United 
States nor any single State can interfere, except in a damage suit, 
is now before a Federal court. It is hoped that a decision in this 
case (United States of America v. The Sanitary District of Chicago) 
will afford a permanent settlement of this question. 

178. The State of New York has admitted the right of the United 
States to place a limit on the diversions of water from the Niagara 
River, but insists that the only right of the Federal Government is 
to fix a limit to the total diversion, and that it is within the province 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 99 

of the State to allot this diversion to various power companies or 
utilize the diversion itself, and to regulate the manner in which it 
may be used. 

The contrary view is that the Government may grant permits for 
certain parts of the diversion and may make such permits condi- 
tional upon the attainment of certain efficiencies, the maintaining of 
certain rates, or the observance of any other conditions it sees fit 
to impose. This latter view would appear to be more in accordance 
with the trend of recent legislation, and recent decisions of the 
Supreme Court. 

179. Rate control and regulation. — The water power of the Niagara 
River constitutes a natural monopoly. The amount of power devel- 
opable there will always be limited, and can always be sold profitably 
at a price much lower than the average cost of power throughout the 
country. Therefore there can never be any permanent condition 
of competition among the various companies developing Niagara 
power, and the natural operation of economic laws will not of itself 
keep the rates down to a reasonable figure. When new power houses 
are built a temporary situation may occur in which there is more 
power capacity than the existing market can absorb, and for a time 
vigorous, and even destructive, competition might exist, but such 
a condition could not continue. In a few years a market sufficient to 
use the total output of the power plants would be built up, and non- 
competitive conditions would return. The only survival of the period 
of competition would be such long-term contracts as might have 
been made for power at unprofitably low rates, and such excess 
charges to new customers as might be made in an attempt 1 to make 
good the deficiencies. 

180. It is apparent, therefore, that the privilege of developing the 
water power of the Niagara River will always constitute a monopoly. 
Whether that privilege be concentrated in the hands of a single com- 
pany or divided among a number of independent concerns will have 
no effect upon its monopolistic character, nor will it make any per- 
manent difference in the selling price of power, except that the lesser 
overhead costs of a single large company might enable such a con- 
cern to do a profitable business at a slightly lower rate. 

181. It has become a well established principle in this country that 
the rates charged by a monopolistic or semi-monopolistic public 
service corporation ought to be controlled and regulated by some 
executive branch of the State or National Governments. This prin- 
ciple applies with full force to the corporations developing Niagara 
power. The proper basis for rate making by any regulating com- 
mission is usually expressed by saying that the company shall receive 
a " fair return upon the fair value " of its property. 

182. Recommended treaty provisions. — It is recommended that the 
treaty with Great Britain proclaimed May 13, 1910, be modified in the 
following particulars : 

(1) That the wording of the treaty be altered to extend the juris- 
diction of the International Joint Commission to include diversions 
from tributaries of boundary waters except in the case of diversions 
from a tributary which are returned to the same tributary. 

(2) That the words, "the scenic beauty of the Falls and rapids/? 
be inserted in the first sentence of Article V after the word " Erie. v 



100 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

(3) That the diversion of water from Niagara Eiver below the 
Falls be specifically limited in the same manner as the diversion from 
the Niagara Eiver above the Falls. 

(4) That the treaty provide for the construction and maintenance 
of remedial works of the nature outlined in Section E of this report ; 
such works to fc>e built under the supervision of the International 
Joint Commission, or of some other international body created for 
the purpose ; the remedial works to be so designed and constructed 
that the scenic beauty of the Falls will be restored and preserved 
when 80,000 cubic feet of water per second is diverted from the 
JSiagara Eiver above the Falls; the expense of constructing and 
maintaining said works to be borne equally by the high contract- 
ing parties. 

(5) That the limits of diversion from the Niagara Eiver above 
the Falls which the high contracting parties may permit within their 
respective jurisdictions be raised from 20,000 cubic feet of water per 
second on the United States side to 40,000 cubic feet of water per 
second, and from 36,000 cubic feet of water per second on the Cana- 
dian side to 40,000 cubic feet of water per second. 

(6) That 20,000 cubic feet per second of the water so diverted upon 
each side of the river shall be returned to the Niagara Eiver at some 
point or points upstream from turning point number 134 of the inter- 
national boundary line adopted August 15, 1913, by the International 
Waterways Commission under Article IV of the treaty between the 
United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland, signed April 11, 1908; and that if any part of the re- 
maining diversion be returned to the Niagara Eiver at any point an 
equal or smaller amount may be again diverted from any point far- 
ther down stream. 

(7) That the limits given above be stipulated to apply to the 
amount actually diverted at any instant, and that accordingly the 
words " in the aggregate " and " daily " be stricken out of Article V 
of the present treaty wherever they occur ; that it be recognized that 
small, brief, accidental violations of the provisions of a diversion 
permit must be allowed if the holder of the permit is to obtain the 
full value thereof, and that therefore such violations shall be per- 
mitted under such regulations as the International Joint Commission 
shall provide. 

(8) That five years after the completion of the remedial works the 
international Joint Commission, or some other body constituted for 
the purpose, shall inform the high contracting parties whether or not, 
in its opinion, further diversions of water from the Niagara Eiver 
for power development can be made, either continuously or inter- 
mittently, without serious injury to the scenic beauty of the Falls and 
rapids, the integrity of the river as a boundary stream, or appre- 
ciable lowering of lake levels. That, if this opinion be favorable to 
the further diversion of water, the commission or body shall in- 
dicate the amount of further diversion which may properly be al- 
lowed, and the conditions by which permits should be limited. 

183. Recommended use of diversions. — In regard to the use of the 
various diversions of water from the Great Lakes and Niagara Eiver, 
the following recommendations are made. 

(1) That no change be made in the method of dealing with di- 
versions whose primary use is for navigation purposes. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 101 

(2) That Federal control of the diversion at Chicago and in the 
vicinity be established by such measures as are necessary, provided 
the United States courts do not uphold the present apparent right 
of the Federal Government to regulate the diversions there; the 
Sanitary District of Chicago being permitted to divert from Lake 
Michigan and its tributaries a total quantity of water not exceeding 
at any time a flow of 10,000 cubic feet per second; under the con- 
ditions that the Secretary of War shall supervise the diversions as 
he deems best, that the expense of supervision shall be paid for 
promptly at stated intervals by the Sanitary District of Chicago, 
that no dangerous conditions shall be created in navigable waters, 
that the Sanitary District agrees to be responsible for any damage 
claims arising because of the diversion, that it shall pay its share 
as determined by the Secretary of War of the cost of such compen- 
sating works as the Federal Government considers necessary because 
of diversions of water from the Great Lakes system, that it agrees 
not to request or make any diversion in excess of that herein stated, 
that it shall pay to the United States for water used for power pur- 
poses at a rate per cubic foot to be based upon the relative value of 
the power as developed and that which could have been developed by 
its use at Niagara Falls, N. Y., and along the St. Lawrence River, and 
that it does all in its power to secure any State authority needed to 
enable it to undertake the establishment of provisions for sewage 
disposal other than by dilution and when so enabled provides as 
rapidly as necessary such sewage disposal facilities as are needed to 
care for the growth of the district. 

(3) That consideration be withheld on all proposals for water 
diversions for combined navigation, power, and sanitary purposes, 
unless of far reaching importance and effects and consistent with 
plans approved by the International Joint Commission as remedial 
against the pollution of boundary waters. 

(4) That the present method of controlling the power diversions 
at Sault Ste. Marie be not disturbed. 

(5) That the total diversion through the Welland Canal for power 
development be limited strictly to the present amount. 

(6) That the diversion through the New York State Barge Canal 
for power development be limited to the 500 cubic feet per second now 
allowed. 

(7) That, as soon as a treaty has been negotiated with Great 
Britain along the lines indicated in section (k) , additional permit or 
permits be granted so as to make the permitted diversion from 
Niagara Biver above the Falls on the United States side 40,000 cubic 
feet per second, one-half of which is returned to the river in the Maid- 
of-the-Mist pool. 

(8) That the Secretary of War, the International Joint Commis- 
sion, or a special board of engineers be requested to prepare plans and 
estimates in detail for a comprehensive system of compensating 
works for restoring the levels of all the lakes and their outflow rivers, 
these plans to be submitted to the International Joint Commission for 
approval, with the intent that such works be constructed, and paid for 
jointly by the United States and Canada. 

184. It is fitting and proper to formally acknowledge the valuable 
services rendered in the conduct of this investigation and in the prepa- 
ration of the report thereon by Mr. W. S. Richmond, Assistant En- 



102 DIVERSION* OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

gineer, by First Lieut. Albert B. Jones, Engineers, United States 
Army, and by Maj . Robert S. Hardy, Engineers, United States Army. 
Mr. Richmond has devoted himself untiringly and loyally to the work 
from its beginning and to his ability and energy are due in large 
measure any merit in its results. Lieut. Jones has contributed to the 
work a high degree of skill and intelligence particularly in the elabor- 
ate computations on comparison of power projects and in his report 
on the preservation of the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls. Maj. 
Hardy, who was under my direction but a short time, and then in 
addition to other important duties, rendered valuable assistance. 

185. Acknowledgment is made of the many courtesies extended 
by the officials of the Dominion of Canada and of the Province of 
Ontario in furnishing information and in extending facilities for 
visiting works under their control under war conditions. 

186. Acknowledgment is also made to the officials of the depart- 
ment of public works of the State of New York and of the State 
engineer's office for important information. 

187. Valuable cooperation and assistance was also rendered by the 
district engineers of the several engineer districts on the Great Lakes, 
particularly by Asst. Engineer F. G. Ray, in charge of the United 
States Lake Survey. 

188. To the officials of the power companies at Niagara Falls, N. Y., 
and Canada, I am indebted for many courtesies and much valuable 
information. 

189. Acknowledgment is also made for valuable suggestions from 
Hugh L. Cooper & Co., R. D. Johnson, consulting engineer, Allis- 
Chalmers Manufacturing Co. and I. P. Morris & Co. 

J. G. Warren, 
Colonel, Corps of Engineers, United States Army. 



Appendix A. 
DESCRIPTION OF DIVERSIONS. 



[Sections A, B, and C of Mr. Richmond's report.] 

From : W. S. Richmond, assistant engineer. 
To : The Division Engineer, Lakes Division, Buffalo, N. Y. 
Subject: Transmitting report on investigation of water diversion 
from Great Lakes and Niagara River. 

1. There is submitted herewith report on investigation of water 
diversion from Great Lakes "and Niagara River. 

2. It is divided into nine sections, as follows : 
Section A : Diversions for navigation purposes. 
Section B : Diversions for sanitary purposes. 
Section C : Diversions for power purposes. 
Section D : Field and office operations. 

Section F : Propositions for utilizing diversions with greater 
economy. 

Section G : Effects of diversions on lake levels. 

Section H : Economic value of diversions. 

Section I: International and interstate matters involved. 

Section K : Recommendations. 

Section L : Acknowledgments. 

W. S. Richmond, 
Assistant Engineer. 



SCOPE OF REPORT. 

This report treats of diversions of water from the Great Lakes, 
whether for navigation, sanitary, or power purposes. Al] diversions 
of sufficient magnitude to be considered worthy of mention have 
been included, a statement of the character, quantity, and effect of 
each being given as briefly as seemed consistent with clearness. 
Both present and proposed diversions are considered. Comparatively 
little is given of the voluminous historical, technical, and legal 
details involved, although the main points are presented. The 
major portion of the report is devoted to the Niagara diversions. 

The territory involved in a comprehensive consideration of these 
diversions is the entire drainage area or basin of the Great Lakes 
above St. Regis, N. Y., 66 miles above Montreal, the place at 
which the St. Lawrence River passes entirely into Canada. This 
area is approximately 300,000 square miles, of which 59.5 per cent 
lies on the United States side of the international boundary line. 

103 



104 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The total area is somewhat larger than that of Texas, and about 1-J 
times the size of France. The land area on the United States side 
of the line is greater than the combined area of the New England 
States and New York State. It includes practically the whole of 
the State of Michigan and portions of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, 
Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. The land area on the 
Canadian side comprises a large part of the Province of Ontario. 
The population of the basin area is estimated to be 15,000,000, of 
which about 2,000,000 are in Canada. At least 16 cities of over 
50,000 population are located within its boundaries. The water 
surface area alone is 95,205 square miles, and 60,975 square miles 
of this, or 64 per cent, is in the United States. The main shore line 
involved exceeds 8,300 miles in length. The total developable 
water power is estimated to be approximately 10,000,000 horsepower, 
far more than half of which is in the United States. The water 
power already developed within this area is roughly one million 
horsepower in the United States, and one and one-half million 
horsepower in Canada. The lake commerce in 1917 was carried in 
more than 1,000 vessels of an average registered tonnage exceed- 
ing 2,000 tons, about 90 per cent of the vessels having a registered 
tonnage of over 100 tons, while 41 vessels had a dead-weight ton- 
nage of 13,000 tons or more. The maximum length of freight 
steamer was 625 feet, maximum beam 64.2 feet, and maximum draft 
used, 21.9 feet. The total freight passing through Detroit River 
during the navigation season of 1917 was 95,000,000 tons, valued at 
approximately $1,250,000,000. There is a not inconsiderable lake 
commerce which does not pass through Detroit River. The length 
of steamer track from Montreal to Duluth is 1,340 miles, and from 
Montreal to Chicago it is 1,260 miles. 

The drainage area under consideration is depicted on plate 1, on 
which are shown the outlines of the Great Lakes and connecting and 
outflow rivers, the outline of the entire basin of the Great Lakes 
above St. Regis, the outline of the drainage basin of each individual 
lake, the international boundary line through the lakes, and the 
general location of waterways through which water is diverted from 
the Great Lakes, or tributaries of the Great Lakes, together with 
other data of a general character. 

Diversions of waters of the Great Lakes basin will first be treated 
under the three divisions of navigation, sanitation, and power de- 
velopment. Some diversions pertain to only one of these uses, some 
to two, and others to all three. Where they pertain to two or more 
uses they will be treated under each division concerned, the remarks 
in each case being confined in so far as practicable to the particular 
use under consideration. Each diversion will be described upon its 
first mention in the report. 

Section A. 

DIVERSIONS FOR NAVIGATION PURPOSES. 

1. ST. MARYS FALLS CANAL. 

The total diversion of water from St. Marys River for navigation 
purposes is about 1,000 cubic feet per second on the average for the 
entire year, the rate reaching approximately 1,400 cubic feet per sec- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 105 

ond as an average for the busiest month of the season of navigation. 
In 1887 the average annual rate of diversion was only 150, and the 
increase to date has been gradual. It is estimated that the fourth 
lock, to be opened in 1919, will require an annual average diver- 
sion of about 350 cubic feet per second. These figures include the 
diversions on both sides of the river. All these diversions are made 
at the head of the rapids, and are returned to the river within 2 miles 
of the points of diversion. In the following paragraphs the char- 
acter of the diversions is explained more at length. There are other 
and much larger diversions at the same place for power development, 
and these are described in Section C of this report. 

Description of St. Marys River. — St. Marys River forms the out- 
let of Lake Superior, connecting the eastern end of the lake with the 
northern end of Lake Huron by a somewhat circuitous route 66 
miles long by the westerly channel, and 75 miles long by the easterly 
channel. Through this passage flow the surplus waters of Lake 
Superior, a volume averaging 75,000 cubic feet per second. The 
drop in water level from Superior to Huron averages 20.7 feet (over 
a period of years), 19.4 feet of this occurring in a rapids three- 
fourths of a mile long near the head of the river, abreast of the city 
of Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. The surface levels of the lakes vary con- 
stantly, causing variations in the volume of water discharged through 
the river and producing changes in the fall of water level from above 
to below the rapids. This local fall varies between the limits of 17 
and 21 feet. The general outline of the river is shown on the map 
designated as plate 2. 

Commerce at Sault Ste. Marie. — There is a large lake commerce 
between communities on Lake Superior and points on the lower lakes 
during those months of the year when the harbors and river chan- 
nels are not choked with ice. The season of navigation on Lake 
Superior opens late in April and closes early in December. During 
the season of 1917 there were 22,885 vessel passages past Sault Ste. 
Marie, made by 1,182 vessels. The total freight carried was 89,- 
813,898 tons, valued at $1,196,922,183. The average freight rate 
was 0.121 cents per ton per mile. The type of lake vessel prin- 
cipally used is shown in photograph No. 1. Sometimes as many 
as 50 vessels are tied below St. Marys Rapids in a blockade as in- 
dicated in the photograph. This commerce follows the natural 
and improved waterways of the westerly channel of St. Marys 
River. At Sault Ste. Marie it passes around the rapids in arti- 
ficial canals about 1 mile long. Locks are provided to overcome 
the difference in water level already described, there being several 
locks, so that a number of vessels may be accommodated at the 
same time, although each lock overcomes the entire fall in one lift. 
There are at present three locks on the United States side and 
one lock on the Canadian side of the river. A single canal serves 
the Canadian lock. On the American side there are two canals, 
the South canal serving both the Poe and Weitzel Locks, and the 
North canal now serving the third lock and designed also to serve 
the fourth lock now under construction. The arrangement of locks 
and canals is well shown on the map marked plate 3. 

Locks and canals. — The first canal and lock at the " Soo " as the 
locality about St. Marys Rapids is known, were constructed in 



106 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

1797 and 1798 on the Canadian side of the river by the Northwest 
Fur Co. The lock, shown in photograph No. 2, was 38 feet long, 
8 feet 8 inches wide, with a lift of 9 feet. A towpath was made 
along the shores for oxen to track bateux and canoes through the 
upper part of the rapids. The picture shows the lock as restored. 
It was destroyed by United States troops in 1814. 

The first canal on the American side was built in 1853 to 1855, 
and was known as the State Canal. It was ItV miles long, 64 
feet wide at the bottom, and 100 feet wide at the water surface. 
There were two tandem locks of masonry, each 350 feet long by 
70 feet wide, with a lift of about 9 feet. The depth in the canal 
was about 13 feet and in the locks about 11J feet, at the stage of 
water then prevailing. The locks are shown in photograph No. 3. 
They were destroyed in 1888 by excavations for the present Poe 
Lock. 

The Weitzel Lock, 515 feet long, 80 feet wide in chamber nar- 
rowing to 60 feet at the gates, with 17 feet depth of water on the 
miter sills, was built by the United States in the years 1870 to 
1881. During the same period the canal was correspondingly 
deepened, and was widened to 160 feet at its widest part, narrow- 
ing at the International Bridge to 108 feet; and the stone slope 
walls were replaced with timber piers having a vertical face. 
Present depth on miter sills at low water is 13 feet. 

The Canadian Canal is 1-J miles long, 150 feet wide at the top 
and 142 feet at the bottom, and has a lock 900 feet long and 60 
feet wide. It was built in the years 1888 to 1895. It was con- 
structed with a depth of 23 feet in the canal and 22 feet on the 
miter sills at the mean stage prevailing at that time. At present 
stages the upper approach to the lock has a depth of 21J to 24 
feet, the lower approach 19 to 20 feet, and the depth on miter sills 
is about 19 feet. 

The Poe Lock, 800 feet long, 100 feet wide, and having 22 feet 
of water on the sills, was built by the United States in the years 
1887 to 1896. Present low-water depth on the miter sills is 18 to 
19 feet. The average depth on miter sills in 1917 was 20.3 feet. 

The third lock is 1,350 feet long, 80 feet wide, and has 24J feet of 
water upon its miter sills at existing stages. It was built in the 
years 1908 to 1914, and was opened to traffic October 21, 1914. 

The fourth lock, now under construction, is shown in photograph 
No. 4 as it appeared May 26, 1917. It is to be of the same dimen- 
sions as the third lock. It is now nearly completed. 

Since 1892 the canal leading to the Weitzel and Poe Locks has 
been widened to 270 feet, except where the width is restricted by 
the pier of the International Bridge and the movable dam to two 
passages of 108 feet each, and deepened to 24 feet in its upper reach. 
Since 1908 the United States has built another canal, north of the 
first, leading to the new third lock, and designed to serve the fourth 
lock also. It is 310 feet wide above the locks, narrowing to 282 
feet at the railway bridge, and widening to 300 feet at the upper 
end. Least depth of water is 24 J feet. 

Photograph No. 5 shows the Weitzel Lock before the building of 
the Poe Lock. Photograph No. 6 is a view of all three United States 
locks as they now exist. No. 7 is a view of the downstream end of 
the Canadian Lock. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 107 

Considerable dredging has been done in the St. Marys River down- 
stream from the locks. The Lake George route was first improved, 
a channel with 12-foot draft being provided before 1869. By 1888 
this had been increased to 16 feet. The route via Hay Lake and 
Mud Lake in the west channel was then improved until in 1894 a 
20- foot depth had been provided. Betterment of channels has been 
continued since that time with a view to providing a 21-foot depth 
at lowest stage of water, and separating upbound from downbound 
traffic in certain reaches. 

To date the United States has expended approximately $24,000,- 
000 on the construction of the locks, canals, and channels of St. 
Marys River. Cost of operating and repairing the locks and canals 
is about $125,000 per annum. The Canadian Lock, canal, and ap- 
proaches cost roundly $5,000,000. 

From 1855 to 1881 the American canal was controlled by the 
State of Michigan, and tolls were charged to cover operating and 
repair expenses, the rate at first being 6J cents per registered ton, 
which was gradually reduced to 2J cents. Similarly the minimum 
charge for lockage of a boat was reduced from $5 to $3. Since con- 
trol was transferred to the United States in 1881, the American 
canal has been free for public use by all nations. Likewise at the 
Canadian canal no tolls have been collected for either foreign or 
domestic commerce. 

The foregoing description has been given in order to make clear 
the character and importance of the diversions of water from St. 
Marys River for navigation purposes. These diversions comprise 
the water used in locking boats up and down, that used in operating- 
gates and valves of the Poe and Weitzel Locks, and the leakage 
through the locks. This water passes around St. Marys Rapids in 
the three navigation canals above described. The Government owns 
a small hydroelectric power plant in the rapids. It is operated by 
the Edison Sault Electric Co., from whom power is purchased for 
operating the third lock and for lighting locks and approaches. The 
water diverted for this purpose will be considered, along with that 
used by other power plants at the Soo, later in this report under the 
heading of diversions for power development purposes. 

Dredging the West Neebish Channel has caused a considerable 
change in distribution of flow between this channel and Middle Nee- 
bish, but this does not constitute a diversion of water from the river. 

Diversions. — During the months of January, February, and March 
each year traffic is completely suspended because of ice, the lock 
gates are closed, and the locks pumped out and kept empty. During 
this time there is no diversion for navigation other than a slight 
leakage, which amounts to less than 100 cubic feet per second for 
all the locks. 

During the operating season of 1917, April to December, both in- 
clusive, the general average and highest monthly average uses of 
water for navigation purposes, in cubic feet per second, were as 
given in the following table, Table No. 8. The Weitzel Lock was not 
in operation in 1917. The average recorded use of water for navi- 
gation purposes during the season of navigation was 177 cubic feet 
per second in 1887, and it increased gradually to a maximum of 1,411 
cubic feet per second in 1916. Considering the entire 12 months of 



108 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

the year, the diversion of waters of St. Marys River for navigatioD 
uses is now roundly 1,000 cubic feet per second, having increased 
gradually to this amount from a diversion of only about 150 cubic 
feet per second in 1887. It is estimated that the fourth lock will re- 
quire an average of 450 cubic feet per second during the navigation 
season and 25 cubic feet per second during the winter, or an average 
for the entire year of approximately 350. 

Table No. 8. — Approximate water diversion at lochs, Sault Ste. Marie, 1917. 





Cubic feet 


per second. 


Name of lock and use. 


Average 
for season 

April- 
December. 


Average 
for highest 

month 
(August). 


Weitzel: 

Lockage 






39 





Operation 





Leakage 


39 






Total... 


39 


39 






Poe: 

Lockage 


290 

8 
98 


393 


Operation 


10 


Leakage 


98 






Total 


396 


501 






Third: 

Lockage 


339 
128 


467 


Leakage 


128 






Total 


467 


595 






Canadian: 

Lockage 


141 

41 


191 


Leakage 


41 






Total 


182 


232 






All locks: 

Lockage 


770 

8 

306 


1,051 


Operation 


10 


Leakage 


306 






Total '. 


1,084 


1,367 







2. CHICAGO SANITARY CANAL AND ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. 

For the past few years there has been no direct diversion of waters 
of the Great Lakes through the Illinois and Michigan Canal. A 
small part of the water diverted through the Chicago Drainage Canal 
enters the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Joliet. Formerly water 
was diverted directly from Lake Michigan through the Chicago 
River, entering the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Bridgeport. The 
amount thus diverted seldom exceeded 850 cubic feet per second. 
In addition there was a small diversion from the Calumet River, a 
tributary of Lake Michigan. Of this diversion it is believed no more 
than 300 cubic feet per second at the very most was required for navi- 
gation purposes. 

The diversion through the Chicago Sanitary Canal averaged about 
8,800 cubic feet per second in 1917, although daily averages ran as 
high as 10,000, and the discharge in the lower part of the canal 



DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 109 

reached 17,500 cubic feet per second for a short time. The entire 
diversion was for sanitary purposes. As a secondary matter, how- 
ever, this water was used to a considerable extent in the generation 
of power, an average flow of about 6,800 cubic feet per second being 
utilized for this purpose. It is estimated that 500 cubic feet per sec- 
ond would be ample to serve any navigation requirements of the 
present canal. Should the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers be im- 
proved to accommodate navigation of 8-foot draft to the Mississippi. 
a diversion of 1,000 cubic feet per second might be required to meet 
the needs of navigation only. 

Descriptions of the Illinois and Michigan Canal and the Chicago 
Sanitary Canal are given in the succeeding paragraphs of Section A 
of this report, together with statements concerning features per- 
taining mainly to navigation. The sanitary and power features are 
treated in Sections B and C, respectively. 

The general location of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, the Chi- 
cago Sanitary Canal, and the Illinois River are shown on plate No. 1. 
The route of the canals above Joliet is more clearly shown on plate 
No. 4. 

Description of Illinois route. — The surface of Lake Michigan is 
approximately 580 feet above the surface of the ocean. The city of 
Chicago, at the west side of the southerly end of Lake Michigan, is 
built on nearly level ground whose surface is generally 15 to 25 feet 
above the lake. Near the western edge of the city, 10 miles from the 
lake, is the Des Plaines River, paralleling the lake shore. At a point 
almost abreast of the center of the city the river turns and follows 
a southwesterly direction. At this point the surface of the Des 
Plaines is about 10 feet above the lake. A shallow, narrow valley 
or depression extends from this point eastward to the south branch 
of Chicago River, its bottom being 5 to 15 feet above the lake. 
Through this depression a part of the waters of Des Plaines River 
formerly flowed in times of freshet, and the early explorers were able 
at such times to navigate canoes and bateaux across the divide which 
normally separates the waters of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi 
Valleys. It is through this depression in the divide that the Chi- 
cago Sanitary and Ship Canal and the Illinois and Michigan Canal 
were constructed. A somewhat similar depression, about 10 miles 
farther south, extends from the Des Plaines River to the Calumet 
River. Along this route the Calumet-Sag Drainage Canal is now be- 
ing constructed. The old Calumet feeder of the Illinois and Michi- 
gan Canal was constructed in this depression. The Calumet River 
discharges into Lake Michigan, as did the Chicago River before it 
was reversed and made to discharge into the sanitary and ship canal. 
Plate 5 gives a small map of the region around Chicago showing the 
features just enumerated. 

The Des Plaines River joins the Kankakee River 15 miles below 
Joliet, forming the Illinois River, which is 273 miles long, and 
empties into the Mississippi River about 38 miles above St. Louis. 
The total fall in water surface from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi 
at the mouth of the Illinois River is about 165 feet. The United 
States has improved the river for navigation purposes from La Salle 
at the foot of the Illinois and Michigan Canal to Grafton, at the con- 
fluence of the Illinois and Mississippi. In this length of about 223 



110 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

miles the fall is approximately 30 feet. The available draft at low 
water in the Illinois River between La Salle and Peoria is 6 feet,, 
though not for the full projected width of 200 feet. Between Peoria 
and the Mississippi River there is an available depth of 5-| feet, re- 
ferred to level of low water of 1901, except at two bars, where shoal- 
ing has reduced the depth to 4 feet. There are four locks in the- 
Illinois River between La Salle and the Mississsippi, each 350 feet 
long and 75 feet wide, with 7 feet depth on the miter sills. At each 
lock the water surface of the upper level is held up by a dam, pro- 
viding slack-water navigation. The first two locks below La Salle — 
one at Henry, 196 miles above the mouth of the river, and one at 
Copperas Creek, 137 miles above the mouth — are operated by the- 
State of Illinois and tolls are collected. This charge is $1.50 on 
boats of 150 tons and under, and on larger boats is 1 cent per ton 
measurement. The other two locks— one at La Grange, 78 miles 
above the mouth, and one at Kampsville, 31 miles above the mouth — 
are operated by the United States and are free from tolls. 

The Illinois and Mississippi Canal connects the Illinois River at 
a point 2f miles above Hennepin and 13 miles below La Salle with 
the Mississippi River at Rock Island. It does not use waters of the- 
Great Lakes Basin. 

The portion of the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers between Joliet 
and La Salle has not been used to any extent for navigation since the 
pioneer days when this natural waterway formed the only practical 
route to the West and carried the primitive commerce of the times in 
canoes and bateaux. The fall from above the State dam at Joliet to 
La Salle is about 100 feet, the distance being 66 miles. At the State- 
dam at Joliet there is a fall of about 11 feet. At Marseilles there is 
a private dam providing a fall of about 11 feet. There is no lock at 
the Marseilles dam. These dams and the power developments 
located at them will be described later in this report under the 
heading of "Diversions for power purposes." 

On August 26, 1905, a board of engineers reported to the Chief of 
Engineers, United States Arnry, plans and estimates for a navigable 
waterway 14 feet deep from Lockport, 111., by way of the Des 
Plaines and Illinois Rivers to the mouth of the Illinois River and 
thence by way of the Mississippi River to St. Louis, Mo. Plans and 
estimates were also presented for a 7- foot waterway and for an. 
8-foot waterway from Ottawa, 111., down the Illinois River to La 
Salle, 111. The 14-foot waterway was to have locks 600 feet long and 
80 feet wide. Below La Salle the locks and dams were to be removed 
and the 14-foot depth maintained by a minimum discharge of 10,500 
cubic feet per second. No opinion was expressed as to the advis- 
ability of undertaking any of these projects. The report is pub- 
lished as House Document No. 263, Fifty-ninth Congress, first session, 

A report submitted by another Board of Engineers on August 15. 
1913, published as House Document No. 762, Sixty-third Congress, 
second session, recommends the construction of a navigable water- 
way excavated 11 feet deep but calculated to serve vessels drawing 8 
or 9 feet, extending from Lockport, 111., by way of the Des Plainer 
and Illinois Rivers to the mouth of the Illinois, and thence by way of 
the Mississippi to St. Louis. The State of Illinois was to pay the 
cost of the waterway from Lockport to Utica, 7 miles above La Salle.. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. Ill 

The remainder of the route was to be constructed at the expense of 
the United States and was estimated to cost $1,050,000 for the portion 
in the Illinois Kiver, with $115,000 annually for maintenance; and 
$3,710,000 for the portion in the Mississippi Kiver, with $125,000 an- 
nually for maintenance. The old locks below La Salle were to be 
altered slightly but maintained with their present horizontal dimen- 
sions of 75 by 350 feet. The channel was to be 160 feet wide in 
canal and 200 feet in open river. The board proposed that the new 
locks above La Salle should be 600 feet long, 80 feet wide, and with 
11 feet of water on the miter sills, but was agreeable to the propo- 
sition that the State, in its cooperative efforts, should build them 
larger if it wished. The State proposed that the portion of the 
waterway which it was to build, namely, that above Utica, should 
have a wetted channel 300 feet wide and 24 feet deep from the Lock- 
port power house for 5£ miles to the Brandon Bridge, just below 
Joliet, and from there to Utica a channel 9 feet deep and 200 feet 
wide at bottom for the present, to be deepened to at least 14 feet later. 
It proposed the construction of five locks, the uppermost beside the 
Lockport power house at the downstream end of the Chicago Drain- 
age Canal, the next at Brandon Bridge, and the last at Utica. Each 
lock was to be 80 by 900 feet in horizontal dimensions, with 24 feet 
of water on the miter sills. On November 3, 1908, the people of the 
State of Illinois voted for an amendment to the constitution per- 
mitting a bond issue of $20,000,000 for the construction of such a 
waterway. Several years later $5,000,000 of this was appropriated 
but no construction work was undertaken, because the necessary co- 
operative arrangement with the Federal Government was not effected. 
It was estimated that $20,000,000 would provide for the excavating 
noted above for the lock at Lockport and for the four dams and 
power houses at the other lock sites, and possibly for the other four 
locks also. 

The Board of Engineers considered a volume of flow of water of 
1,000 cubic feet per second more than sufficient for such a waterway. 

THE ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. 

The Illinois and Michigan Canal extends from a point on the South 
Branch of the Chicago River in the city of Chicago southwesterly to 
La Salle, 111., where it enters the Illinois River. Its length is 97 
miles and its fall is 142 feet at low water stages of Lake Michigan and 
the Illinois River. Its point of beginning is 5J miles from Lake 
Michigan, measured along the Chicago River. From this point it 
passes westward across the low divide, through the natural depres- 
sion in the land surface previously described, about 7 miles to the 
valley of the Des Plaines River. Following along the southeasterly 
side of the valley of this river, it enters the river in the city of Joliet 
32 miles from its point of beginning. It proceeds but a short distance 
in the river channel, and then, at the State Dam, leaves the river on 
its northerly side, following the northwesterly rim of the valley of 
the Des Plaines River to the junction of the Des Plaines with the 
Illinois, and thence along the northerly side of the Illinois River to 
La Salle. Construction of the canalbegan in 1836 and was com- 
pleted in 1848. The canal had a surface width of 60 feet, a bottom 
width of 36 feet in earth sections and 48 feet in rock, and a depth of 



112 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

water of 6 feet. All bridges over the canal were fixed, the minimum 
clearance being about 11 feet. The locks were 110 feet long and 18 
feet wide, having a depth of 6 feet of water on the sills. There were 
15 lift locks and one guard lock. 

As originally constructed there was at the head of the canal a sum- 
mit level 26i miles long which was 8 feet above the level of Lake 
Michigan and was fed from the Des Plaines and Calumet Rivers, as 
well as by a lift wheel from the Chicago River. The water from 
Calumet River was conducted through the Sag Valley in a feeder 
canal 16 J miles long. The summit level was cut down in 1866 to 
1871. While the summit level existed it did not supply sufficient 
water to the reach of canal extending from Ottawa upstream toward 
Joilet. To make an adequate supply available the Kankakee feeder 
was constructed. This feeder canal received water from the Kanka- 
kee River at a point several miles above its junction with the Des 
Plaines, and conducted it to the Illionis and Michigan Canal at a 
point about 1 mile above the junction. The feeder water passed 
over the Des Plaines River in an aqueduct just before entering the 
canal. After the summit level had been cut down this feeder became 
unnecessary and was abandoned. The Fox River feeder received 
water from the Fox River several miles north of Ottawa, and con- 
ducted it to the canal at a point in Ottawa nearly a mile beyond the 
aqueduct which carries the Illinois and Michigan Canal over Fox 
River. This feeder also has been abandoned and some portions of it 
have been filled in. The total cost of building the canal, including 
cutting down the summit level, was $9,513,000. 

During the first 30 years of its operation the canal was much used 
and it earned a very substantial revenue. In 1879 the net receipts 
over expenses of operating up to that time were $2,934,000. In addi- 
tion to this, a total amount of $5,886,000 had been received from the 
sale of canal lands. More than 300,000 acres of public land had 
been donated the State by the Federal Government as an aid in 
financing the canal and a large portion of this was sold. As late as 
1902 there was a revenue from tolls of approximately $30,000 a year. 
Now, the State receives very little from tolls, and has received very 
little since about 1905. There is a revenue from land rentals, ice 
privileges, and rental of water for power development, which, to- 
gether with the receipts from tolls, enables keeping the canal open 
for navigation, but is inadequate to meet the expense of repairs or 
dredging to maintain a proper depth of channel. 

There was some interruption of navigation in the vicinity of Joliet 
following 1905 due to operations of the Sanitary District of Chi- 
cago. The canal has fallen into disuse and poor repair. In 1916 it 
was navigated by a very few boats, mostly small pleasure craft. Its 
available draft had been reduced in places to If feet. In 1918 the 
Federal Government was dredging to restore this 4f -foot draft. The 
Illinois and Michigan Canal is a State project, and is under the 
State department of public works and buildings. 

Diversions. — From the time of the opening of the Illinois and 
Michigan Canal in 1848 to the opening of the lock of the Main 
Drainage Canal on July 13, 1910, water was diverted from Lake 
Michigan through the Illinois and Michigan Canal into the Des 
Plaines River. The diversion was chiefly for sanitary purposes, 




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Photograph Nc. 5.— WEITZEL LOCK AT" SAULT STE. MARIE. 
Before construction of the Poe Lock. 




Photograph No. 8.— ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. 




Photograph No. 9.— FOX RIVER AQUEDUCT, ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. 




Photograph No. 10.— ANOTHER VIEW OF FOX RIVER AQUEDUCT, ILLINOIS AND 

MICHIGAN CANAL. 




Photograph No. 11. — LOCK NO. 2, ILLINOIS AND 
MICHIGAN CANAL. (Abandoned.) 







Photograph No. 12.— ROCK SECTION, MAIN DRAINAGE CANAL. 




Photograph No. 1 3.— GONTROLLI NG WORKS, CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. 




Photograph No. 14.— BEAR TRAP DAM, CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. 





Photograph No. 15.— DRUM DAMS AND LOCK, CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. 




Photograph No. 16. — STATE DAM NO. 1, DESPLAINES RIVER. 





Photograph No. 17. — ROCK SECTION, PRESENT WELLAND CANAL. 




Photograph No. 18. — EARTH CUT, PRESENT WELLAND CANAL. 




Photograph No. 19.— M. C. R. R. DRAWBRIDGE, PRESENT WELLAND CANAL. 




Photograph No. 20.— GUARD GATES AND LOCK NO. 25, PRESENT WELLAND CANAL. 




<«* ■ %mmj* 




Photograph No. 21.— SERIES OF LOCKS, PRESENT WELLAND CANAL. 




Photograph No. 22. — PORT DA-LHOUSIE, ONT. 
Lock No. 1, Present Welland Canal, on left. Lock Mo. 1, Old Welland Canal, on right. 




Photograph No. 23. — SLUICES ADMITTING WATER TO OLD WELLAND CANAL. 




Photograph No. 24.— LOCK AND VIADUCT, OLD WELLAND CANAL. 




Photograph No. 25.— JUNCTION OF TWELVE - M I LE CREEK AND OLD WELLAND 

CANAL. 




Photograph No. 26. — BLACK ROCK SHIP LOCK. 




Photograph No. 27. — BLACK ROCK CANAL, FERRY STREET BRIDGE 




Photograph No. 28.— GUARD LOCK NO. 72, OLD ERIE CANAL, BLACK ROCK, N. Y. 






Photograph No. 29.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 
Typical rock section under construction. 




Photograph No. 30.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 
Typical earth section. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 113 

however. The quantity required for navigation is not known, but 
it was undoubtedly less than 300 cubic feet per second. This was 
abstracted from Lake Michigan or withheld from the lake by being 
abstracted from its tributaries — the Chicago and Calumet Rivers. 
The canal has discharged as much as 2,100 cubic feet per second at 
Joliet in the spring when 362 cubic feet per second was being 
pumped in from the Chicago River. In order to cause a large flow 
through the canal it was necessary to close the gates at Chicago and 
pump water into the canal from Chicago River, raising the water 
surface in the canal several feet above the river level. A head of 5.7 
feet was found to be required for a discharge of 1,000 cubic feet 
per second. Pumps accepted by the city of Chicago in 1886 had a 
capacity of 1,000 cubic feet per second, but the volume pumped 
seldom exceeded 850 cubic feet per second, and this was largely for 
sanitary purposes. Since completion of the Main Drainage Canal 
and Lock the portion of the Illinois and Michigan Canal above 
Joliet has been abandoned, and there is no diversion of lake water 
through it. Some short stretches of the canal near Chicago have 
been filled in by garbage contractors. The flow in this canal below 
Joliet comes from the Des Plaines River, whose small natural flow is 
greatly augmented by the large discharge from the Chicago Main 
Drainage Canal which empties into Des Plaines River just above 
Joliet. The average discharge oiLthe Des Plaines River is roughly- 
400 cubic feet per second, but low-water discharges as small as 7 
cubic feet per second have been measured and flood discharge as 
large as 11,900 cubic feet per second. The present discharge of the 
Illinois and Michigan Canal just below Joliet varies between 300 
and 550 cubic feet per second. This is used up largely by leakage, 
seepage, evaporation, and power development, and is used only 
very slightly for locking boats. It is evident from the figures given 
above that normally only a portion of this water is furnished by the 
natural flow of the Des Plaines River, the rest coming from Lake 
Michigan by diversion through the drainage canal. 

The present general appearance of the canal is shown in photo- 
graph No. 8. An upstream view of the aqueduct carrying the canal 
waterway over Fox River is given in No. 9, and a top view of 
the same in No. 10. A photograph of Lock No. 2 between Joliet and 
Lockport on the abandoned portion of the canal is given as No. 11. 
In this last picture it may be noted that there is a very small amount 
of drainage flowing through this lock. 

Traffic. — The yearly average tons of freight transported on the 
canal from 1860 to 1916 was 544,629. The maximum tonnage for 
one year was carried in 1882 and was 1,011,287. The tonnage car- 
ried decreased materially from 1895, when railroads were most active 
in competition. 

Tolls have always been charged. The rate on coal is 1 mill per 
ton per mile, on lumber 5 mills per 1,000 board feet per mile, and on 
merchandise 2 mills per ton per mile. In addition there is a toll on 
each boat of 3 cents per mile. 

It is reported by the 8tate superintendent of the division of 
waterways, under the department of public works and buildings, 
that there is a widespread demand for improvement of this canal, 
27880—21 8 



114 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

and that a company has been formed and financed to construct boats 
for operation on it as soon as the required depth is available. The 
canal traverses a populous territory and has many industries that 
can utilize it located along it. 

Canal lands. — An interesting point to note is that the act of Con- 
gress approved March 2, 1827, granting certain lands to the State 
in aid of building this canal provided that the lands were subject 
to the disposal of the State legislature " for the purpose aforesaid 
* and no other," and that " said canal, when completed, shall be and 
forever remain a public highway for the purpose of the Government 
of the United States." The Department of Justice has held that the 
State should maintain the canal to fulfill its part of the contract, 
or return the consideration to the United States. 

CHICAGO SANITARY CANAL. 

The general location of the Chicago sanitary and ship canal is 
shown on plates 1, 4, and 5. 

Description. — The Chicago sanitary and ship canal parallels 
the Illinois and Michigan canal from a point on the west fork 
of the south branch of Chicago River to the canal basin in Des 
Plaines River above Joliet, a distance of 32.35 miles. As projected 
the depth of water was to be 24.3 feet, the canal prism in rock was 
to be 160 feet wide at the bottom and 162 feet wide at the top, 
while in earth the prism was to be 202 feet wide on the bottom and 
300 feet at the water surface, with side slopes of 2 to 1 under water 
and 1J to 1 above. As actually constructed the dimensions are as 
follows : From Robey street in Chicago to Summit, 7.8 miles, 162 feet 
wide at bottom and 226 feet at water line ; Summit to Willow Springs, 
5.3 miles, 202 feet wide at bottom and 290 feet at water line ; Willow 
Springs to the controlling works at Lockport, 14.95 miles, 160 feet 
wide at bottom and 162 feet at water line. At the controlling 
works there is a fan-shaped basin with an extreme width of 502 feet. 
From these works to the lock at the power plant between Lockport 
and Joliet, 2 miles, the channel is of irregular width, nowhere less 
than 160 feet. The reach from Robey street to Summit was exca- 
vated wholly in earth. Originally only the south side of the canal 
was excavated, the bottom width being 110 feet. In 1912 to 1914 
it was widened on the north side to the dimensions given above. 
From Summit to Willow Springs the excavation was mostly in 
earth, but there was some rock in the bottom of the prism. From 
Willow Springs to Lemont the excavation below water line was 
largely in rock. From Lemont to the end of the canal the excava- 
tion was almost entirely in rock. The depth of water in the canal 
upstream from the power house is 22 to 26 feet. The lock is 130 
feet long and 22 feet wide, with 12 feet of water over the sills. Its 
average lift is 36 feet. From the lock to the Illinois and Michigan 
canal basin at Joliet, 2.3 miles, through rock, the canal has a mini- 
mum depth of water of 10 feet, bottom width of 160 feet and top 
width of 162 feet. It is planned by the sanitary district to build a 
larger lock when it is needed, unless the 80 by 900 foot lock planned 
by the State of Illinois and described previously is constructed. 

The entrance of the canal at Robey Street is 6 miles from Lake 
Michigan, measured along the Chicago River. Originally the Chi- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 115 

cago River was a sluggish stream, nearly stagnant during the greater 
part of the year, but having a rapid current in rainy seasons. At 
times it discharged not only the run-off from its own watershed, 
but a quantity of water from the Des Plaines River, which passed 
over the low divide between the two streams. Between Robey 
Street and the lake the Chicago River now has a least depth of 21 
feet in mid- channel and to within 20 feet of docks, except for the 
short distance between Robey Street and Ashland Avenue, where 
the least depth is 20 feet. The Sanitary District of Chicago, owner 
of the canal, aims to secure a depth of 26 feet for the midstream 
width of 100 feet, shoaling to 16 feet at the docks, with a clear 
river width of 200 feet between dock lines. 

The controlling works are at Lockport, 111., on the northwest side 
of the canal. They comprise a bear-trap dam 160 feet wide with 
a vertical play of 17 feet, and seven sluice gates of the Stoney type, 
each 30 feet wide and having a vertical play of 20 feet. These 
works provide a very efficient means of controlling the flow of water 
through the canal. To a limited extent the canal discharge may be 
controlled at the power plant, where, besides the lock, there are two 
drum dams, one 12 feet long and one 48 feet long, each having a 
vertical play of 18 feet. The narrower one is nearer the power 
house and is designed for use as an ice run. A butterfly dam is 
located just below the controlling works at Lockport, furnishing 
means for closing off the portion of canal leading to the lock and 
power house. It is a swing bridge affair with center pivot located 
on a pier in midstream. There is a channel 80 feet wide on each 
side of the center pier. 

There are 18 bridges across the canal. Two of these are fixed 
and allow a free passage 40 feet wide with 18 feet of headroom 
above the water surface. The other bridges are either swing or 
bascule movable bridges, but 12 of these can not be opened because 
the operating machinery has never been installed, although the 
State law required that they should be operative by January 17, 
1909. The least headroom under the inoperative movable bridges 
is about 16J feet. There are two bridges at Lockport with a clear- 
ance above the water of only 4.8 feet, but these are in commission. 

The Sanitary District began dredging in the Chicago River in 
1896. Excavation of the Main Drainage Canal was commenced on 
" Shovel Day," September 3, 1892. The canal was first opened for 
the passage of water on January 17, 1900. The cost of the Main 
Drainage Canal, Chicago River improvement, and other items pro- 
viding a navigable waterway from Lake Michigan to Joliet has been 
approximately $50,000,000/ This figure does not include the items 
required for sanitary or power development purposes, but in no way 
necessary for navigation. The annual cost of maintenance of the 
Main Drainage Canal is roughly $75,000. 

Traffic. — The use of the canal for navigation is very small. In 
1917 there were 160 boats locked through at the power house. The 
largest boat passing the lock was 75 feet long by 14 feet beam, and 
the average size was about 40 feet by 8 feet. In addition there is 
a traffic on the canal hauling stone from Lockport to Chicago. 

No tolls are charged against vessels navigating the canal or pass- 
ing the lock. 



116 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Diversion. — It has never been necessary to estimate the diversion 
of water from Lake Michigan which would be required to operate 
the drainage canal as a navigable waterway, provided no sewage or 
water for sewage dilution or water for power development purposes 
were discharged into it, but it seems probable that 500 cubic feet per 
second would suffice amply. If the Des Plaines and Illinois River 
route for 8-foot navigation is developed, 1,000 cubic feet per second 
may be required from Lake Michigan. 

Illustrations. — Photograph No. 12 is of the rock section of the 
Main Drainage Canal. Photograph No. 13 shows a portion of the 
controlling works, including the seven Stoney gates, one end of the 
bear-trap dam, the control- house for one end of the dam, and a 
portion of the bridge spanning the dam. At the controlling Works 
there are eight bays without gates, similar to the seven bays which 
have Stoney gates. Originally it was thought that gates might be 
installed in these bays later, but this plan has been abandoned. No. 
14 is a picture of the bear-trap dam. No. 15 shows the drum dams, 
the downstream end and lower gates of the present lock, and a por- 
tion of the power house. No. 16 is a view of State Dam No. 1 at 
Joliet. The entrance to the Illinois and Michigan Canal is on the 
far side of the river. 

3. WELLAND CANAL. 

The diversion of water from Lake Erie through the Welland Canal 
appears to have been approximately as follows : During the season of 
navigation of 1917, 4,600 cubic feet per second; during the follow- 
ing closed season, 4,300 ; during the navigation season of 1918, 4,400 : 
during the closed season, 4,100. In addition there was a supply of 
about 40 cubic feet per second from the Grand River, a tributary of 
Lake Erie. These figures are averages, and so, of course, the diver- 
sion has at times exceeded these amounts. Of these diversions 1,100 
cubic feet per second was used for navigation, including lockage, 
leakage, and waste, during the open season, and 800 cubic feet per 
second during the closed season. Of the remainder a very small 
amount was used for sanitary purposes and the balance for power de- 
velopment. The diversion from the Grand River was begun in 1833. 
The diversion direct from Lake Erie was begun in 1881. 

In the succeeding paragraphs there is given a general description 
and brief history of the canal, with special reference to the naviga- 
tion features. The power features are treated in section C. 

Description. — The Welland Canal connects Lake Erie with Lake 
Ontario. It is in Canada 5J miles west of Niagara River at the 
point where the distance is least, and runs approximately north from 
Port Colborne, 19 miles west of Buffalo on the north shore of Lake 
Erie, to Port Dalhousie on the south shore of Lake Ontario, 11 
miles west of the mouth of the Niagara River. The route is shown 
on plate No. 6. The mean stage of Lake Erie for the years 1860 to 
1917, both inclusive was 572.53 feet above mean sea level, on United 
States standard datum ; while for the same years the mean stage of 
Lake Ontario was 246.18 feet; making the average drop for those 
years from upper to lower lake surface 326.35 feet. 

The present Welland Canal, which is 26| miles long, overcomes 
this difference in elevation by means of 25 lift locks and one guard 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 117 

lock. The locks are 270 feet long, 45 feet wide, and have 14 feet 
depth of water on the miter sills. Maximum available length for 
boats is 255 feet. The average lift is 13 feet, the maximum lift at 
any lock being about 18 feet. The lock valves are in the gates and 
are operated by hand. The gates themselves are operated electrically. 
The guard lock is at Port Colborne, one-half mile from the entrance 
to the canal. From there the canal extends IT miles at Lake Erie 
level, except for the slight drop necessar}^ to create a flow of water 
toward Lake Ontario, to the guard gates just above Lock No. 25. The 
distance along the canal from the guard gates to Lock No. 1 at Port 
Dalhousie is 9J miles. There are no locks in flight, and the levels 
between locks are in all cases at least long enough and wide enough 
to permit boats to pass. The depth in the upper level is controlled by 
the elevation of Lake Erie. At low stages of the lake the depth on 
the sill of the guard lock at Port Colborne, No. 26. is less than 13 feet, 
and at extreme low stage this depth has been as small as 10J feet. 
The canal prism was excavated in earth except for a short rock cut 
just north of Port Colborne, shallow rock cuttings south of the guard 
gates, and shallow to heavy rock cuttings at the lock sites. Bottom 
width is 100 feet, the side slopes being 1 on 2. At the city of 
Welland, 8 miles from Lake Erie, the canal is carried over the 
Welland River on a concrete viaduct. 

History. — A brief history of the present Welland Canal and its 
predecessors is as follows: The construction of the first Welland 
Canal was begun in 1824 by a private corporation. In May, 1833, 
the canal was opened from Port Colborne to Port Dalhousie for 
navigation. The depth was 7-J feet, the bottom width of prism 
being 26 feet in earth and 15 feet in rock. There was a long summit 
level 8 feet above the level of Lake Erie, fed from the Grand River 
by a feeder canal 21 miles long, which ran in a northeasterly direc- 
tion from Dunnville on the Grand River to Welland on the canal. 
In 1841 the Canadian Government purchased the canal rights and 
in 1842 began an enlargement which was completed in 1850. As 
enlarged the canal prism was 8| feet deep and 26 feet wide on the 
bottom, and the feeder was increased to the same size. Subsequent 
to 1854, by the addition of copings the navigable depth of the canal, 
but not of the feeder, was increased to 10 feet. In 1872 the Gov- 
ernment determined on a scheme for the general enlargement of the 
canal, the adoption of the Lake Erie level, and the obtaining of a 
water supply from Lake Erie at Port Colborne, in addition to the 
limited supply coming through the feeder from Grand River. This 
canal was an enlargement of the old canal from Port Colborne to 
Allanburg, about 15 miles, but from there to Port Dalhousie followed 
an entirely new route somewhat east of the old line. In 1882 this 
improved canal was opened for 12-foot navigation. When the aque- 
duct at Welland was completed in 1887 this canal, now known as the 
present Welland Canal, was made available for 14-foot navigation. 
The portion of the old canal from Allanburg to Port Dalhousie 
has been retained and is open to navigation but has been used only 
a very few times in many years. It is three-fourths mile longer than 
the line which replaced it and has 26 locks, each 45 feet wide and 
with 10J feet of water on the sills. Two of the locks are 200 feet long 
and 24 are 150 feet long. The old canal is used for water-power 



118 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

development, as will be explained later. There are numerous rail- 
road and highway bridges spanning the canal. These are all swing- 
bridges, which open on signal. Many of them have very little clear- 
ance above the water surface when closed. 

Cost and traffic. — The original cost of the old Welland Canal, in- 
cluding the first enlargement, was $7,693,824. Subsequent enlarge- 
ments, including construction of the present canal, raised the original 
cost to $29,431,758. Maintenance, operation, and repairs up to March 
31, 1917, amounted to $10,121,846. 

The total amount of freight carried in recent years has been as 
follows : In 1915, 3,016,012 tons ; in 1916, 2,544,964 tons ; and in 1917, 
2,490,542 tons. Approximately two-thirds of this was eastbound. 
The maximum yearly tonnage was carried previous to 1915. The 
number of vessel passages in 1916 was 2,552. 

Tolls were charged up to 1904, and since that time the canal has 
been free of tolls. Up to March 31, 1917, the total amount collected 
from tolls, wharfage, harbor dues, water rentals, and other rents was 
$1,560,396. 

Diversions. — Nothing is known of the quantity of water originally 
supplied from the Grand River. Evidently the supply was more 
than the requirement for navigation uses, for leases covering the 
development of water power at the locks were made as early as 1851. 
although the first Lake Erie water was not admitted to the canal 
until 1881. At present the supply through the Dunnville feeder is 
officially reported to be 40 cubic feet per second. Combining official 
reports with the results of field inspection, it has been computed 
that in 1918 the direct diversion from Lake Erie averaged 4,400 
cubic feet per second during the navigation season and 4,100 during 
the closed season. The maximum diversion at any one time ran 
somewhat above the mean, but is not known. In 1917 the diversion 
was 200 cubic feet per second greater. The officially reported 
amount used in lockage and leakage below Allanburg is 1,100 cubic 
feet per second during the season of navigation and 800 cubic feet 
per second during closed season. 

New Welland Canal. — In 1913 work was commenced on the New 
Welland Canal, sometimes called the Welland Ship Canal. This 
canal will be just 25 miles long and will overcome the difference in 
elevation of the two lakes in seven lifts of 46^ feet each, and one 
lift, at the guard lock, which will vary from nothing at all to 12 
feet, depending on the stage of Lake Erie. From Lake Erie the 
new canal follows the line of the present canal to Allanburg, 15 
miles, except for two cut-offs, which straighten the alignment some- 
what. The Humberstone cut-off, so-called, begins 1J miles from the 
lake and is about 1-| miles long, passing to the west of the present 
canal. The new guard lock will be located on this cut-off, and the 
present canal will provide a by-pass for the flow of water around 
the lock. The other cut-off commences at the Welland Aqueduct, 
and follows the line of Welland River, just east of the present canal, 
about 4 miles to the town of Port Robinson, at wljich point the Wel- 
land River turns eastward to the Niagara River. A dam is to be 
constructed across the Welland River at Port Robinson, raising the 
water level of the river about 10 feet. The aqueduct at Welland will 
be removed. The level from the Humberstone guard lock to Lock 
No. 7 at Thorold, 3 miles north of Allanburg, will be maintained at 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVES. 119 

elevation 568 feet above mean sea level. 'At Allanburg the new canal 
leaves the present canal, the new route lying to the east of the old 
as far as the Present Lock No. 25, a distance of about 2-| miles. Just 
below Lock 25 the two canals are to cross at grade. From there the 
new route lies west of the old and runs almost due north for 3 miles 
to another crossing of the present canal at grade a short distance 
downstream from present Lock No. 11. New Lock No. 7 is at Thor- 
olcl. Locks Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are between Thorold and the lower 
canal crossing. They are in flight and are twins; that is, six locks 
arranged two abreast in one mammoth concrete block. From the 
lower crossing of the present canal the new route follows the valley 
of Tenmile Creek in a direction slightly east of north a distance of 
5 miles to Lake Ontario. At the mouth of Tenmile Creek, 3 miles 
east of Port Dalhousie, an artificial harbor has been constructed, 
known as Port Weller. Lock No. 3 is just below the lower crossing 
of the present canal and Lock No. 1 is near Port Weller, Lock No. 2 
being approximately halfway in between. The locks are to have a 
usable width of 80 feet and usable length of 800 feet, with 30 feet 
depth of water on the miter sills at extreme low stage. They will 
be 885 feet long from hinge to hinge of the gates. The lock gates 
will be of single-leaf type. Guard gates will be installed above Lock 
No. 7. The canal prism is to be 200 feet wide at bottom, 310 feet 
wide at water line, and 25 feet deep. It is planned that the canal 
may ultimately be deepened to 30 feet, and for that reason the locks 
and all masonry structures, such as retaining walls and piers are 
designed for the 30- foot depth. The canal excavation is almost en- 
tirely in earth, and the cutting is something like 30 feet deep on the 
average, although there is a 50 to 60 foot cut about 2 miles long, 
the maximum cutting being 66 feet. The locks are founded on either 
limestone or shale rock. The estimated cost was $50,000,000. On 
March 31, 1917, construction work on the new canal was postponed 
indefinitely on account of the war. 

In organizing the construction work the new route was subdivided 
into nine sections, which were numbered in order from Lake Ontario. 
Section 1 included Port Weller, the new harbor on Lake Ontario, and 
extended about 3 miles from the outer end of the harbor, including 
Lock No. 1. Section 2 was about 4J miles long, and included Locks 
Nos. 2 and 3. Section 3 was about 2 miles long, and included the 
flight of twin locks, Nos. 4, 5, and 6, and the single lock, No. 7. These 
three sections cover the route from Lake Ontario up to the Lake 
Erie level at Thorold. Section 5 extended along the present canal 
from Allanburg to Port Robinson, the work involving widening and 
deepening the existing prism. These four sections were placed under 
contract in the summer and fall of 1913. Up to the date of suspen- 
sion of operations the progress had been such that sections 1 and 5 
were considered two-thirds complete each, section 2 half complete, 
and section 3 one-third complete. Nothing further has been done 
to this new canal until recently. The total expenditure upon it to 
date has been $13,693,923. 

It is officially reported that the maximum diversion of water from 
Lake Erie required by the new canal for navigation will be approxi- 
mately 2,000 cubic feet per second. The general location of the 
Welland Canal is shown on plate 1. On plate 6 the old, present, and 



120 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

new Welland Canals are shown more in detail, as well as their re- 
lation to Niagara River. Photographs Nos. 17 to 22, inclusive, are 
illustrative of the present Welland Canal, while photographs Nos. 
22 to 25, inclusive, are illustrative of the old Welland Canal. Ex- 
planations are given beneath the pictures. 

4. BLACK ROCK CANAL. 

Water from Lake Erie is diverted around the head of Niagara 
River through the Black Rock Canal for a distance of about 4 miles. 
At the lower end of the canal some of the water passes into the head 
of the old Erie Canal. The rest passes through Black Rock Lock 
out into Niagara River. There is a small leakage from the Black 
Rock Canal into Niagara River along the upper portions of Bird 
Island Pier. The amount of this leakage was estimated to be about 
250 cubic feet per second. From the lock records the requirement 
for lockage and waste at Black Rock Lock is approximately 50 cubic 
feet per second. In addition to these two quantities there is diverted 
down the Black Rock Canal whatever water flows in the Erie Canal 
at Black Rock. This quantity has been as great as 1,000 cubic feet 
per second. Since the removal of the dam at Tonawanda in the early 
spring of 1918 and the construction of the temporary dam across 
the old Erie Canal at Tonawanda, the flow into the upper end of 
the Erie Canal at Black Rock has been small, about 400 cubic feet 
per second. This has been spilled into Niagara River at Tonawanda, 
except for what was lost by seepage and evaporation. The Erie 
Canal as improved to form the barge canal now receives its western 
water supply from Niagara River at Tonawanda. 

Following is a brief description of the canal and lock of the Black 
Rock Canal, with statements regarding the navigation features. 
The old power developments are referred to briefly in Section C. 

Description. — The general relation of the Black Rock Canal to 
Niagara River is shown on plate No. 6. The canal and lock are 
shown better on plate No. 7. 

The Niagara River breaks out from Lake Erie over a ledge of 
limestone abreast of the city of Buffalo, N. Y. Not far from the 
lake the stream is only 1,600 feet wide at its narrowest place. In this 
cross section it has a maximum depth of 15 feet at mean stage and 
a velocity approximating 8 miles per hour. The fall from Horse- 
shoe Reef Light, at the head of the river, to the foot of Squaw 
Island, 3f miles, is approximately 5.1 feet, varying somewhat with 
the stage of Lake Erie. From Squaw Island the river slope is com- 
paratively gentle, for about 15 miles by the shortest route, to the 
head of the rapids above the Falls. 

To aid navigation in passing this swift shallow portion of the 
river a channel, known as the Black Rock Canal, has been con- 
structed along the eastern edge of the river from Buffalo Harbor to the 
foot of Squaw Island. The upper end of Black Rock Channel is at 
the foot of Maryland Street, about a mile from the north or main en- 
trance to Buffalo Harbor. The channel which has been dredged 
from the main entrance of the harbor to the canal is 21 feet deep, and 
is 400 feet wide from the southerly end of the north breakwater to 
the northerly end of the State breakwater, abreast the foot of Georgia 
Street, and 500 feet wide from there to the head of the canal. On ac- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 121 

count of shoaling at the Lake entrance, the present available depth is 
about 18 feet. The canal itself is formed by a breakwater largely 
of rock, known as Bird Island Pier, extending from a point opposite 
the foot of Maryland Street to the head of Squaw Island, about 
2J miles, and by the passage between Squaw Island and the main 
shore. Within this space, which is 3J miles long, and varies from 
220 to 1,400 feet in width, is a dreclged channel 21 fleet deep and 
200 feet wide extending for 3J miles from the head of Bird Island 
Pier to the lock near the foot of Squaw Island. This channel is 240 
feet wide on curves, and is only 150 feet wide at the Ferry Street and 
International bridges. These are the only bridges crossing the canal 
and they have clear openings of 150 feet in each case, the bridge at 
Ferry Street being of the bascule type and the International Bridge 
of the swing type. The clear headroom under these bridges when 
closed, at mean stage, is 15 feet. The canal water surface is at Lake 
Erie elevation at its upper end, and has only a very slight drop to 
the lock. 

The Black Rock Lock, connecting the canal with the Niagara 
River near the foot of Squaw Island, is 650 feet long between hollow 
quoins and 70 feet wide, has a usable length of 625 feet, usable width 
of 68 feet, depth of 22 feet on the miter sills at low stage, and aver- 
age lift of about 5 feet. It is electrically operated and lighted. 

The river portion of Bird Island Pier, extending from the head 
of Squaw Island up to Bird Island, was constructed by the State 
between 1823 and 1825 in connection with the building of the Erie 
Canal. At this time the dike between Squaw Island and the main 
shore was built also. These structures, in fact, formed a part of the 
Erie Canal. Between 1829 and 1834 the United States Government 
extended and repaired the upstream end of Bird Island Pier, and be- 
tween 1869 and 1872 extended the pier from Bird Island to a point 
opposite the foot of Hudson Street. In 1891 and 1892 the pier was 
extended 900 feet to a point opposite the foot of Maryland Street. 
About 1825, mills were established on the dike between Squaw Island 
and the mainland, to develop water power provided by the 5-foot 
head of water held up by the dike. Water for power development 
was used in such quantities by these mills as to create a current very 
detrimental to canal navigation. To remedy this condition the State 
constructed an intermediate wall between Bird Island Pier and the 
main shore, some time between 1854 and 1867, providing a separate 
channel 70 feet wide for the Erie Canal, adjacent to the mainland. 
It was found that the water passing down this 70-foot channel to 
supply the navigation needs of the Erie Canal created too great a 
current, and accordingly, after 1871, the middle wall was moved out 
for the greater part of its length and the main bank was cut back 
sufficiently to provide a channel for the Erie Canal 150 feet wide. 
This division Avail was never quite completed at its downstream end. 

Black Rock Lock. — Some time previous to 1840 a ship lock was 
built between Squaw Island and the mainland. It was of timber, 
and soon decayed and leaked badly. In 1841 a new stone lock was 
commenced, but its construction was greatly delayed by financial 
difficulties of the State, and was not completed until 1851. This 
lock, which was sometimes called the "sloop" lock, was in operation 
until 1913, when it was removed, between July and November, to 
make room for the new approach channel to the present lock. The 



122 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

old lock was 200 feet long, 36 feet wide, and had about 9^ feet of 
water on the sills at mean lake stage. 

Construction of the present lock was commenced in 1907 and com- 
pleted in 1913. The deepening and widening of the channel and 
building of Ferry Street Bridge were not finished until 1914. The 
present canal was opened to navigation August IT, 1914. 

Cost and traffic. — The cost of this waterway to the State of New 
York is not known. The expenditures upon it by the United States 
from 1826 to June 30, 1918, for new work total $3,945,563, including 
$1,001,578 for the present lock. The United States spent very little 
for maintenance of it until the opening of the new lock and channel 
in 1914, and the maintenance cost to the State is not known. The 
expense of operation and maintenance has been borne by the United 
States since the opening in 1914, and has amounted to $52,726. 

The maximum number of vessel passages through the new lock 
was in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, and was 9,829. The 
number of vessel passages in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1918, 
was 6,304. Between 40 and 50 per cent of these passages were by 
motor boats or craft other than registered vessels. In the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1918, the freight carried through the lock amounted 
to 1,632,846 tons, and this was the maximum carried in any fiscal 
year since the opening of the improved waterway. The value of 
this freight was $8,579,217. 

Diversion. — The amount of water diverted around the rapids at 
the head of Niagara River has never been known accurately. State- 
ments made by the chief engineer and canal commissioners of the 
Erie Canal at the time Bird Island Pier was about to be constructed 
indicate that the natural discharge of the river through the area shut 
off by this pier was far greater than the flow ever obtaining down 
Black Rock Harbor and the Erie Canal. In recent years the dis- 
charge of the Erie Canal just below where it leaves the Black Rock 
Canal has been as high as 1,000 cubic feet per second. This flow 
was supplied from Lake Erie through the Black Rock Canal, in addi- 
tion to the small requirements for lockage at the Black Rock Sloop 
Lock, and whatever water leaked out at the lock and through Bird 
Island Pier. At the present time the portion of the Erie Canal be- 
tween Buffalo and Tonawanda is not in use, the water level being 
held up by a temporary dam at Tonawanda. The flow required is 
only that necessary to compensate for leakage, seepage, and evapora- 
tion in this reach of the old canal. In addition to this, however, 
there is spilled into Niagara River at the old spillway at Tonawanda 
about 400 cubic feet per second. The new Black Rock Channel must 
carry this water and also enough more to provide for lockage at the 
new lock, leakage through Bird Island Pier, and evaporation. It is 
estimated that the leakage is approximately 250 cubic feet per sec- 
ond and the lockage and waste at the lock less on the average than 50 
cubic feet per second. Altogether it seems probable that the quantity 
of water diverted from Lake Erie is about 700 cubic feet per second, 
300 of which is returned to Niagara River within a distance of 3J 
miles. 

Three photographs are presented illustrating this waterway. No. 
26 shows the new lock as it appears to-day. The other two, Nos. 27 
and 28, are recent views of the canal. Brief descriptions are given 
beneath the pictures. 



DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 123 
5. NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 

The western portion of the New York State Barge Canal was 
opened in midsummer of 1918. There is no record of the quantity 
of water which has been diverted into it from Niagara River, but it 
is believed to have been less than the average amount assumed to be 
required ultimately, namely, 1,237 cubic feet per second. The maxi- 
mum capacity of the canal to Lockport depends on the stage of Lake 
Erie and on the depth maintained on the upper sill of the first lock. 
It varies roughly from 1,000 to 3,000 cubic feet per second. East of 
Lockport the maximum discharge capacity of the canal is 1,600 cubic 
feet per second. For navigation use it seems likely that a diversion 
of 1,000 to 1,500 cubic feet per second will be required. A portion 
of the water thus required may also be used in the development of 
power at Lockport without interfering with navigation. 

During the period of construction of the western part of the barge 
canal, from 1910 to 1918, the diversion averaged somewhat less than 
previously. At times there was no flow in the canal at all and the 
prism east of Pendleton was empty. Previous to 1910, for several 
years, the diversion which then came from Lake Erie by way of the 
Black Eock and Erie Canals ranged approximately between 500 and 
1 ,000 cubic feet per second. Something like half of this amount was 
used for power development only. 

These diversions from Lake Erie and Niagara River are discharged 
into Lake Ontario at Oswego and at various points between Niagara 
River and Irondequoit Bay, except for the portions lost by seepage 
and evaporation. 

In addition a considerable drainage naturally tributary to Lake 
Ontario is diverted into the barge canal from Macedon to the Rome 
Summit level. Except for the losses by seepage and evaporation this 
finds its way into Lake Ontario at Oswego. There is also an average 
of about 50 cubic feet per second from the Mohawk Valley and 35 
cubic feet per second from the Susquehanna River drainage basin 
diverted into this portion of the canal, and thus discharged into the 
Great Lakes system at Oswego. 

The general location of the New York State Barge Canal is shown 
on plate No. 1. On plate No. 8 the portion of the canal mainly under 
discussion is shown more in detail. 

A description and brief history of the canal with special reference 
to its navigation features is given in the following paragraphs. In 
Part C of this report is a short treatment of the power development 
along the canal. 

Description. — The present New York State Barge Canal system 
.provides a waterway of 12 feet minimum depth and not less than 
94 feet width, except at locks, from Buffalo on Lake Erie, to the 
Hudson River at Waterford, and thence on down the Hudson past 
Troy and Albany to New York City. The Champlain branch from 
\Vaterford to Lake Champlain is of like dimensions, as are also the 
short lateral branches at Rochester and Syracuse, the Oswego branch, 
connecting the main canal with Lake Ontario at Oswego, and the 
Cayuga and Seneca Canal connecting the main canal with Cayuga 
and Seneca Lakes. The main or Erie branch proper, which is the 
improved Erie Canal, has its western end in the Niagara River at the 
mouth of Tonawanda Creek, at Tonawanda, N. Y., and its eastern 



124 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

end in the Hudson River at Waterford. The distance between these 
two points, as measured along the center line of the canal, is 338.4 
miles. From Tonawanda the barge canal route continues up the 
Niagara River and passes through the Black Rock Ship Lock and 
Channel 12.4 miles to a State terminal at Buffalo. 

From Waterford the route follows down the Hudson River 2.3 
miles to the lock and dam at Troy, at the head of tidewater, and 
then continues 7.7 miles farther to Albany, and thence on down to 
New York City. It is 353.1 miles from Buffalo to Troy via the 
canal, and 153 miles from Troy to the Battery in New York City, 
or 506.1 from Buffalo to New York by the route of the barge canal.. 
The Champlain Canal is 60.7 miles long, the Cayuga and Seneca 
Canal 27.2 miles long, and the Oswego Canal 23.4 miles long. Alto- 
gether the barge canal system, counting the lakes, but not Erie and. 
Ontario, provides 790 miles of navigation of barge canal dimensions. 
In addition there are portions of the older canals still available for 
use, as will be noted later. 

Leaving the Niagara River at Tonawanda the barge canal follows 
a northeasterly direction about 18 miles to Lockport. There it turns 
and follows a generally easterly direction, approximately parallel 
with and 10 miles south of the shore of Lake Ontario, for 60 miles- 
to the Genesee River. Continuing easterly its route reaches the head 
of Oswego River approximately 90 miles from the Genesee, as meas- 
ured along the canal. Thence the route extends on eastward, pass- 
ing through the 20 miles of length of Oneida Lake, to the Rome 
Summit level, and on down along the Mohawk River to Albany. It 
is 37 miles along the canal route from the head of Oswego River to 
Lock No. 21, at the westerly end of the Rome Summit level. This 
level is 18.22 miles long. 

From Tonawanda to Pendleton, 9.58 miles, the canal is in Tona- 
wanda Creek, except for three cut-offs at sharp bends. In the first 
12,000 feet of this reach the water surface width approximates 200 
feet, and the depth is 12 feet, at a stage of 565.50, barge canal 
datum, which is 564.37 on United States Standard datum, adjust- 
ment of 1903, elevation referring to the junction point of Tona- 
wanda Creek and Niagara River. For the remainder of the dis- 
tance to Pendleton the cross section closely approximates the stand- 
ard barge canal section in earth, which is a trapezoid 12 feet deep 
with 75 feet bottom width and wide slopes of 1 on 2, making the 
width of water surface 123 feet. The banks are carried to a mini- 
mum height of 2J feet above the assumed water, surface, or 14} feet 
above the bed of the canal. At Pendleton the canal leaves Tona- 
wanda Creek and follows a land line from there to a point consider- 
ably beyond the Genesee River. From Pendleton three-quarters of 
the way to Lockport the section is almost entirely standard earth' 
section. The remaining length is in rock cut with a standard 
section 94 feet wide on bottom, and having vertically channeled sides 
with 6-inch offsets at the top of each 9-foot lift. The bed of the 
canal has been given a slope toward Lockport, which increases to- 
ward Lockport, and makes the total drop from Tonawanda to Lock- 
port 1.47 feet. 

There are two new standard locks in flight at Lockport, provid- 
ing for a total drop of 49.16 feet, from highest to lowest sill. These 
locks are Nos. 34 and 35, and they carry the canal down over what 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 125 

is known as the Niagara escarpment. The next lift lock, No. 33, is 
M miles west of Pittsford, 64 miles from Lock No. 34, and 4 miles 
east of the Genesee River. 

The reach of canal between Locks Nos. 33 and 34 is known as the 
"long level," or "sixty-mile level." As a matter of fact, it has been 
constructed with a sloping grade, the elevation of the canal bottom 
being 502.87 feet at Lockport and 500.60 feet at Genesee River, barge 
canal batum, giving a fall of 2.27 feet in 60 miles. With the exception 
of the three cut-offs on Tonawanda Creek previously mentioned and 
a short cut-off just west of South Greece, the new barge canal follows 
the line of the old Erie Canal from Tonawanda to South Greece, a 
few miles west of Rochester, where it takes a more southerly route 
and passes around the main portion of the city of Rochester, uniting 
with the old canal line again at Pittsford. The old Erie Canal has 
been deepened and widened to form the new barge canal, which for a 
considerable portion of its length is confined between artificial earth 
embankments* The canal is constructed throughout for a low-water 
depth of 12 feet. The artificial earth banks rise 2^ feet above this 
assumed water level. The canal crosses the Genesee River at grade. 
This river rises in Pennsylvania and flows in a direction somewhat 
east of north across the State of New York into Lake Ontario at a 
point 77 miles east of Niagara River, as measured along the lake 
shore. The point at which the barge canal crosses the Genesee is 11 
miles south of the lake and 3 miles south of the center of the city of 
Rochester. The old Erie Canal passes through the center of the city 
and is carried over the river on an aqueduct. The river itself is to 
be made navigable from the new canal crossing 2.9 miles northward 
into the heart of the city, the river surface being raised and regulated 
by means of a movable dam situated at the downstream end of this 
reach. At the crossing the water surface of the Genesee naturally 
fluctuates between the extreme low and high stages of approximately 
507.7 feet and 522 feet, respectively, barge canal datum. To obtain 
12-foot depth in the canal the stage at the crossing must be 512.6 feet. 
This is 4.9 feet above natural low stage. The required minimum 
stage of 512.6 feet will be maintained as closely as possible by manip- 
ulation of the movable dam. Guard locks are provided in the canal, 
one on each side of the Genesee a short distance from the river, and 
these are to be closed to protect the canal and its banks when high 
flood stages carry the river level more than a foot or two above regu- 
lated low stage. 

From the Genesee River to the head of Oswego River, about 90 
miles, there are 10 locks with lifts varying from 6 to 25 feet. The 
descent is continuous from Niagara River to Three River Point, 
at the head of the Oswego River, the fall being from 565.5 to 
363 feet, barge canal datum, a drop of 202.5 feet. From the Genesee 
eastward to Macedon the canal is mainly a land line. From Macedon 
to Lyons it is partly a land line and partly a canalization of Ganar- 
qua Creek. At Lyons the Ganarqua enters the Clyde River, and 
the canal follows the canalized Clyde, except at sharp bends, to 
Montezuma, where the Clyde enters the Seneca River, the outlet of 
Seneca and Cayuga Lakes. From Montezuma to Three River Point 
the Seneca River has been deepened and widened, and rectified at 
bends where necessary, to form the canal. At Three River Point 
the Seneca River from the west and the Oneida River from the east 



126 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

unite to form the Oswego River. From this point the canal route 
ascends to the Borne Summit level, which is at elevation 420 feet, 
the total ascent being 57 feet. Leaving Three River Point the canal 
follows up Oneicla River to Oneida Lake, passing through one lock, 
No. 23, which has a lift of 6.9 feet. East of Oneida Lake there are 
two locks, Nos. 21 and 22, with a combined lift of 50.1 feet. The 
canal follows the valley of Wood Creek to the city of Rome. Wood 
Creek passes through the western part of the city of Rome and 
flows westward while the Mohawk River passes through the eastern 
part and flows eastward. At Rome these streams are scarcely half 
a mile apart, although the former is a tributary of the Great Lakes, 
while the latter is a tributary of the Hudson River. Continuing 
eastward from the Rome Summit level the barge canal follows the 
Mohawk to Waterford, descending 404.8 feet from elevation 420 to 
elevation 15.2, in the pool above Troy Dam, by 19 locks whose lifts 
vary from 8 to 40.5 feet. The Mohawk has been canalized for the 
greater portion of this distance. In general, the channel has been 
excavated for a width of 200 feet in the rivers and lakes. A large 
number of fixed and movable dams have been required to provide 
slack-water navigation in the Clyde, Seneca, Oneida, and Mohawk 
Rivers. The portions of the barge canal east of the Rome Summit 
level are of little interest in this report, being outside the drainage 
basin of the Great Lakes. 

Locks. — The locks of the barge canal are of standard design, 
having a width of 45 feet, a usable length of 311 feet, and a minimum 
depth of 12 feet on the miter sills. They are constructed of concrete 
and are built in line with one side of the canal prism. There are 34 
lift locks and 2 guard locks on the Erie branch of the barge canal, 
not including the lock at Troy. The lock gates are all of the bi- 
valve mitering type with the exception of the downstream gate of 
Lock No. 17, at Little Falls, and the gates of the two guard locks at 
Genesee River, which are of the lift type. Lock No. 17 has the 
highest lift of any barge canal lock, namely, 40.5 feet. The distance 
between gates of the lift locks varies with conditions from 338 to 343 
feet. All lock gates and valves, and also the towing capstans situated 
on the lock walls, are operated electrically. The electric energy 
employed for these purposes and for lighting the locks is generated 
at the locks, except in the case of the Genesee River guard locks, where 
the power is purchased from the Rochester Railway & Light Co. 
There are small hydroelectric power stations along the Erie branch 
of the barge canal, within the territory embraced in this investiga- 
tion, at Locks Nos. 34, 33, 29, 28B, 28A, 27, 24, 23, 21, and 20. Power 
is transmitted from No. 34 to No. 35, from No. 33 to No. 32, from 
No. 29 to No. 30, and from No. 21 to No. 22. There are gasoline-driven 
electric generating units at Locks Nos. 25 and 26, where the available 
head of water is only 6 feet. In almost every case there are two 
generating units at each power station, each unit having a 50-kilo- 
watt, 250-volt, direct-current generator. 

At Lockport, previous to the recent reconstruction of the Erie 
Canal to form the present Erie branch of the barge canal, there were 
five twin-locks in flight; that is 10 locks in a block 2 locks wide and 
5 locks long. Each lock was 110 by 18 feet, inside horizontal dimen- 
sions, with 7 feet of water on the sills. The total lift was 57 feet. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 127 

The south flight of locks has been removed to make room for the two 
new standard-size locks, which are in flight, and overcome the entire 
lift. By a lowering of the upper level the lift has been reduced 
several feet, the reduction depending upon the stage of Lake Erie, 
and being nominally from 57 feet to 49.16 feet. There is no other 
place on the Erie branch of the barge canal where the locks are in 
flight without intervening basins, and only one other place on the 
barge canal system, namely, at Seneca Falls, on the Cayuga and 
Seneca branch, where there are two standard locks in flight. As in 
the case of Lockport, this flight overcomes a difference in elevation 
of 49 feet. 

Wasteways. — There are numerous spillways and waste gates along 
the barge canal to facilitate regulating the water level at the desired 
elevation and to aid in preventing washouts of the banks. On the 
long level between Lockport and Rochester there are 13 spillways 
where water may be wasted into small natural water courses flowing 
northward into Lake Ontario. These small streams all pass under 
the canal in culverts, except at Medina, where an aqueduct carries 
the canal over Oak Orchard Creek. Each spillway consists of a 
waste weir 25 to 170 feet long, having its crest along one side of the 
canal, 12 feet above canal bed, and of two or more sluice gates. 
Each waste weir is designed for the use of flashboards to provide 
for deepening the canal in localities where it may be desirable and 
it is considered safe to use flashboards 1 foot high. Such use would 
permit the canal water surface to rise within 1J feet of the tops of 
the artificial earth embankments, which is as close as prudence 
admits, when consideration is given to the wash and surges caused 
by wind and passing boats and to a reasonable provision for safety 
against washouts. 

Guard gates and bridges. — There are a good many guard gates 
along the barge canal, to provide for shucting off the flow of water 
in case of accident to locks, canal banks, aqueducts or bridges. These 
gates are all of the lift type, and are constructed in two parts with a 
central pier separating them, so that each gate shuts off half the 
canal prism. The gates nearest to Niagara River are at Pendleton, 
where the canal leaves Tonawanda Creek. On the long level, guard 
gates are located so as to divide the canal into lengths of 4 to 12 miles 
each. The number of bridges crossing the canal runs into the hun- 
dreds. Some of these are lift bridges, local conditions having re- 
quired that they should be close to the water surface. Most of the 
bridges are fixed, however, the required minimum of clearance above 
canal water surface being 15J feet. There are no swing or bascule 
bridges, and the lift bridges are arranged to be raised at both ends and 
remain horizontal, spanning the canal whether raised or lowered, 
but providing the required clearance when in raised position. 

Branch canals. — Cayuga and Seneca Lakes are located in the cen- 
tral western part of the State of New York, south of the Erie branch 
of the barge canal. They are long narrow lakes running nearly 
parallel in a north and south direction, at an average distance apart 
of about 12 miles. They are deep except at the ends. By doing a 
small amount of dredging at the shallow ends, and connecting the 
northern ends to the Erie branch through a fairly short canal, called 
the Cayuga and Seneca branch, they have been made a part of 



128 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA TW 



the new barge canal system. Seneca Lake has its water surface 
at elevation 445 feet. It is 34J miles long and is 3 miles wide 
in the place of greatest width. The canal is 12^ miles long from the 
northeast corner of the lake to its junction with the branch from 
Cayuga Lake, just north of the latter lake, and follows a direction 
somewhat north of east. It drops 14.5 feet by a lock at Waterloo, 
and 49 feet by two locks in flight at Seneca Falls, reaching elevation 
381.5 feet at the junction. This is the elevation of Cayuga Lake, 
which is 36 miles long, and has a maximum width of about 3J miles. 
Just below the junction of the branches from the two lakes is Lock 
No. 1, having a drop of 7 J feet, and bringing the level down to that 
of the Erie branch of the barge canal, namely 374 feet. It is 4 miles 
nearly due north from Lock No. 1 of the Cayuga and Seneca branch 
to the junction with the Erie branch, about 1J miles southwest of 
Montezuma. 

The Oswego branch follows the Oswego Kiver, running north- 
westerly 23.4 miles from Three Eiver Point to Lake Ontario at 
Oswego. The fall is continuous from elevation 363 at Three River 
Point to Lake Ontario level, assumed by the barge canal engineers as 
244.4, making the total drop 118.6 feet. This drop is controlled at 
seven locks, one at Phoenix having 10.2 feet drop, two at Fulton hav- 
ing a total drop of 44.8 feet, one at Minetto having a drop of 18 feet, 
and three at Oswego having a combined drop of 45.6 feet. 

The work of reconstructing the Erie Canal, Champlain Canal. 
Oswego Canal, and Cayuga & Seneca Canal, to form the present 
barge canal system was commenced in the spring of 1905. In the 
spring of 1918 the entire system was open for navigation, although 
some work still remained to be done, mainly on the western end of 
the Erie branch, and on the various terminals. 

Cost — In April, 1900, the State of New York appropriated 
$200,000 for a complete survey and estimate of cost of a new canal 
system, embracing the Erie, the Oswego, and the Champlain Canals. 
The surveys, plans, and estimates were completed in February, 1901, 
and in 1903 the people of the State voted favorably for the improve- 
ment and enlargement of these canals at an estimated cost of $101,- 
000,000. By another referendum vote in 1909, the Cayuga & Seneca 
Canal was added to the barge canal system, at an estimated cost of 
$7,000,000. By a third referendum vote in 1911, $19,800,000 was 
appropriated for building terminals at various municipalities 
throughout the State; and by a fourth referendum vote, in 1915, the 
further sum of $27,000,000 was appropriated to cover the full com- 
pletion of the canal system. The total appropriation, $154,800,000 
will represent very closely the cost of the New York State Barge 
Canal. 

Traffic— The barge canal is to be free of tolls. As yet there is 
comparatively little traffic upon it, and only a few boats are avail- 
able for its use. The United States Government is now supervising 
the use of the canal for navigation purposes, and constructing barges 
to be used upon it, By such arrangements as to rates and routing of 
freight as is possible under Government control of commerce on both 
the canal and the competing railways, it is hoped that a large use of 
the canal will develop, relieving railway congestion and reducing the 
cost of transportation. It was originally intended that the canal 




Photograph No. 33.— NEW YORK STATE BARG 
Interior of Hydraulic Power House. 




Photograph No. 35.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 
Interior of Gasoline'Power House. 





Photograph No. 36.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 
Old and New Lock at Lockport, N. Y. 



Photograph No. 39, NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANA 
Movable Dam on Mohawk River at Cranesvllle. 




No. 38.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL, 
id Sluices on Mohawk River at Vischer Ferry. 





Photograph Nn. 41. NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL, 
ck No. 8 and Movable Dam in Mohawk River, neai Si hs lady 



Photograph No. 40. -NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 
Lock, Dam, and Taintor Gates. 







pi*i$L~ 




Photograph No. 42.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 

Lock and Movable Dam, Mohawk River, near Schenectady. 




Photograph No. 43.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 
Crescent Dam at foot of Mohawk River. 







m^, 



f i pttlll^l W WIiTT^iiiyilW ii iB •< ' '' ' ***■" " ' 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 129 

should be navigated by self-propelled barges of 1,000 tons cargo 
capacity. The locks, as finally built, were considered adapted for the 
use of a self-propelled barge of 1,500 tons cargo capacity in tandem 
with a tow barge of equal capacity. Thus 3,000 tons of freight could 
be passed at a lockage. Six of the old Erie Canal boats of 250 tons 
capacity each can be accommodated at a time in a single lock. Con- 
tracts for 21 concrete tow barges to be used on the canal have been 
let by the inland waterways committee of the Railroad Administra- 
tion. These barges are to be 150 feet long, 21 feet beam, and of 12 
feet molded depth. The loaded draft is to be 9^ feet, loaded dis- 
placement 756 tons, and cargo capacity 489 tons. Four of these 
barges may be locked at a time, and it is intended to tow them in 
groups of four. They are of open hull construction, and will cost 
about $25,000 each. No figures are available on the cost of operation 
or maintenance of the canal. 

History of Neio York canals. — The first work of interior water- 
way improvement in New York State was done in the latter part 
of the eighteenth century between the Hudson River and Lake On- 
tario, and between the Hudson and Lake Champlain, by two private 
companies which were chartered in 1792. Agitation for State-built 
canals began about 1808 and resulted in the construction of the Erie 
and Champlain Canals in the years 1817 to 1825. In the next decade 
several lateral canals were built, followed by the first enlargement 
of the three chief canals, a work protracted through many years, 
and not completed until 1862. Subsequently and prior to 1900 there 
occurred several partial enlargements, including one known as the 
" nine-million improvement." The original Erie Canal begun in 
1817 and finished in 1825, was 4 feet deep, 28 feet wide at bottom, 
and 40 feet wide at the water surface. It was 363 miles long, had 84 
lift locks and 13 guard locks, each 90 by 15 feet, and constructed of 
stone. Its cost was $7,143,790. The first enlargement was made 
between 1836 and 1862. The waterway was made 7 feet deep, 52^ 
to 56 feet wide on the bottom, and 70 feet wide at the water line. 
There were 72 lift locks and 3 guard locks, each 110 by 18 feet, inside 
horizontal dimensions. The total length of the canal was reduced 
to 350J miles. The cost of enlargement was $31,834,041. The second 
enlargement was begun in 1896, when a depth of 9 feet was attempted. 
The work was completed at disconnected localities only, and the canal 
still remains for the most part as left at the end of the first en- 
la rgement, except in so far as it has been destroyed in constructing 
the new barge canal. Ultimately practically all the locks of the old 
canal were doubled to care for the enormous amount of traffic, and 
to provide lockage when one lock was out of commission. Practi- 
cally all canal boats were towed by mules or horses on a towpath 
along one side of the canal. 

Tolls were charged on the old canals. The old Erie Canal pro- 
vided the first practicable commercial route between the Great Lakes 
region and the United States seaboard. It made the growth of the 
western part of the State practicable, and was a great aid in open- 
ing up such western States as Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, and Wis- 
consin. Even to-day over 75 per cent of New York State's popula- 
tion is to be found within 5 miles of the barge canal and the Hudson 
River. The early traffic on the canal was enormous for the times, 

27880—21 9 



130 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

and the tolls collected brought a wonderful revenue to the State. 
For many years there was no competition to this route, and little 
by little as stretches of railway began to parallel the canal legisla- 
tive measures provided against competition. The canals were so 
very popular and so lucrative to the State that their finances were 
not at all times properly handled, and many lateral lines were con- 
structed which proved unprofitable and had to be abandoned. Rail- 
road competition finally crept in, and periods of financial depres- 
sion were experienced, resulting ultimately in a very large abandon- 
ment of the use of the canals. The number of tons of cargo carried 
on the State canals in 1853 was 4,247,853. In 1872 the maximum 
tonnage was transported, namely, 6,673,370 tons. The tonnage car- 
ried in 1885 was 4,731,784; in 1905 it was 3,226,896. The tolls at 
first collected ranged from 5 mills per ton per mile for salt, gypsum, 
brick, sand, lime, iron ore, and stone to 2 cents per ton per mile for 
merchandise. Freight boats paid one mill per mile, and passenger 
boats 5 cents per mile. From time to time the tolls were revised, 
usually downward and finally they were abolished by amendment 
of the State constitution, effective January 1, 1883. The gross reve- 
nue from tolls on all the canals of the State up to 1877 was $130,034,- 
897.09. At the end of 1882 the financial statement regarding the 
Erie Canal alone was: 

Erie Canal. 

Gross revenue to date $121, 461, 871. 09 

Colection, superintendence, and ordinary re- 
pairs $29,270,301.16 

Cost of construction and improvements 49, 591, 852. 68 

Total cost '— 78,862,153.84 

Leaving a balance to credit of Erie to date 42, 599, 717. 25 

This was exclusive of interest on debt for construction and improve- 
ment amounting to nearly $70,000,000, and exclusive of value of the 
canal at that date. On the same basis the entire system of State 
canals had to its credit at that time $8,333,457. Before beginning the 
second enlargement of the Erie Canal in 1896 the total canal debt had 
been reduced to about $150,000. In 1877 it was reported that carriers 
on the canals had received up to that time about $150,000,000, and 
merchants and warehousemen about $100,000,000, while the value 
of the increase in wealth and population was incalculable. 

The early history of the Cayuga & Seneca Canal, the Oswego 
Canal, and the Champlain Canal, is fairly similar to that of the Erie 
Canal, and need not be recounted here. 

Old canals available for use. — As already noted, there are, in addi- 
tion to the new barge canal system of standard dimensions, portions 
of the older and smaller canals of the old Erie Canal system still 
available for use. One of these is the Black River Canal, which is 
35 J miles long, and extends from the barge canal at Rome, N. Y., 
northward to Lyons Falls, N. Y., on the Black River. 

The canal prism is 26 feet wide at bottom, ,42 feet wide at water 
surface, and 4 feet deep. There are 106 locks of stone, each 90 feet 
long and 15 feet wide, overcoming a rise of 693 feet from Rome to 
the summit level at Boonville, and a fall of 389-J feet from there to 
Lyons Falls. The canal is now navigable by boats 75 feet long, 12 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 131 

feet wide and drawing 3J feet of water. At Delta, about 5 miles 
north of Rome, a few miles of the canal were relocated recently to 
make room for the Delta Reservoir, and 4 new locks were constructed. 
The canal was built between 1838 and 1855 at a cost of $3,157,296. 
From Lyons Falls the Black River was improved during the same 
years at a cost of $108,699, to have a channel 40 feet wide and 5 feet 
deep as far north as Carthage, 42J miles. There were two wooden 
locks included in this improvement, each 160 by 30 feet, with a total 
lift of 9J feet. This river channel is nominally navigable, but is, in 
fact, inaccessible because of the dilapidated condition of the locks 
at Lyons Falls. A feeder 10 miles long, of the same prism dimen- 
sions as the canal, and without locks, is navigable. This extends from 
Forestport, farther up Black River, to the summit level of Black 
River Canal at Boonville. It was constructed in 1838 to 1848. 
Its cost is included in the figure given for the canal. At pres- 
ent the feeder and canal are used as a feeder to convey water 
from the reservoirs on upper Black River and Woodhull Creek 
to the Rome Summit level of the barge canal. The Black River 
Canal itself does not join with the barge canal directly, but still 
has its end in the old Erie Canal at Rome. About one-half mile 
easterly from this point the old Erie Canal connects with the 
barge canal through the new junction lock which overcomes a 
drop of 9.6 feet from the old canal to the new canal. The junction 
lock is 188 feet long, 45 feet wide, and has 12 feet of water on the 
miter sills. The usable length of this lock is 160 feet. The portion 
of the Old Erie Canal between Mohawk and Rome is retained as a 
navigable lateral branch. It is south of the barge canal and is con- 
nected with it by junction locks similar to the one just described. 
Another portion of the old canal between Butternut Creek feeder, 
just east of Syracuse, and New London on the Rome Summit level, 
is retained as a navigable feeder, and has a similar junction lock at 
New London. The portion of old canal from South Greece to Roches- 
ter is also retained for the present. 

Water-supply diversions. — From the foregoing description it will 
be observed that the water surface of the barge canal has its highest 
point at Niagara River, and from there drops continuously to Lake 
Ontario at Oswego, by way of the Erie branch to Three River Point, 
and thence by way of the Oswego branch. From Cayuga and Seneca 
Lakes there is derived a water supply sufficient for the Cayuga and 
Seneca branch, and also for the Erie branch from Montezuma along 
the Seneca River to Three River Point, and on down the Oswego 
River to Oswego. From Tonawanda to Montezuma the necessary 
water supply is derived from the Niagara River, although some 
water is furnished by Ganargua Creek between Macedon and Lyons, 
and by the Clyde River between Lyons and Montezuma. Because of 
the water-power interests on Genesee River it is intended not to 
draw upon that stream at all, abstracting from it on the east side of 
the crossing only an amount of water equal to that supplied to the 
river from the long level on the west side. The old canal formerly 
received some supply from Genesee River through a short feeder 
on the east side of the river, but this was long ago abandoned. At 
Medina there was a short feeder which supplied water from the 
marshes forming the headwaters of Oak Orchard Creek, south of the 



132 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

canal. This supply was augmented by the flow from the upper por- 
tion of Tonawanda Creek, which was brought across the low divide, 
in a canal several miles long, northerly to Oak Orchard Creek. This 
water now flows down Oak Orchard Creek under the aqueduct at 
Medina, the feeder between Oak Orchard Creek and the canal having 
been abandoned. 

The barge canal was opened to navigation only about a year ago, 
and as yet no large amount of traffic has developed, so there is no 
actual knowledge as to the quantity of water which must ultimately 
be diverted into the canal from Niagara River to supply the needs of 
navigation. The original estimate of the average water supply 
which the barge canal would require from Niagara River was made 
by Mr. Emil Kuichling, and reported to the State Engineer and Sur- 
veyor February 12, 1901. It is as follows, not including the quantity 
assumed to be necessary for refilling the canal prism each spring: 

Cubic feet 
per day. 

Evaporation, percolation, and absorption by plants : _ 32,500,000 

Leakage at aqueducts, culverts, and waste gates 2,500,000 

Leakage at lock gates and valves 1,200,000 

Loss over waste weirs 5, 000, 000 

Water for power to operate locks 1,000,000 

Water for power for electric light at locks 700, 000 

Water for lockages, at average rate of 59 per day 18, 000, 000 

Water diverted for industrial uses and agriculture 46, 000, 000 

Total during season of navigation 106, 900, 000 

This is equivalent to an average discharge of 1237.27 cubic feet 
per second. It was considered that this diversion would care for an 
annual traffic of 10,000,000 tons of cargo. The last item in the table — 
namety, 46,000,000 cubic feet per day — was to include such spilling at 
wasteways for power uses as had been customary at Lockport, 
Medina, and elsewhere. Several years subsequently it was decided 
to increase the width of the locks from 28 to 45 feet, and the depth 
from 11 to 12 feet. The quantity of water required for the same 
number of lockages was thereby largely increased, as was also the 
quantity necessary to provide power for operating gates and towing 
boats in and out of locks, and for probable increased waste weir losses. 
For maximum conditions of seepage, evaporation, and lockage, it 
was considered that no greater supply would be necessary, provided 
none of the 46,000,000 cubic feet per day was spilled for industrial 
or agricultural uses at such times ; and the value of 1,237 cubic feet 
per second was retained in all subsequent computations. The Barge 
Canal accordingly was designed with such slopes as to be able to 
abstract 1,237 cubic feet per second from the Niagara River at a 
stage of 565.5 at Tonawanda, barge canal datum, and transport from 
point to point so much of this as was not lost en route by seepage, 
evaporation, leakage at wasteway gates and aqueducts, and unavoid- 
able spilling over waste weirs caused by winds, passing boats, or 
lock fillings. The quantity passing Medina under these conditions 
was calculated to be 967 cubic feet per second, and thati entering 
Genesee River 606 cubic feet per second. A quantity of 606 cubic 
feet per second was to be abstracted from the east side of Genesee 
Hiver and carried on down the long level. 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 133 

At times when the requirements for seepage, leakage, lockage, etc., 
are less than maximum, it will not be possible to reduce the flow 
very much, because a quantity approximating that assumed in the 
computations will be necessary to maintain the proper slope, and 
thus provide a depth of water of 12 feet at all points on the long 
level from Lockport to Rochester. The excess quantities of water 
must be discharged at wastewa}^ all along the line, and could not 
be discharged at one or two or three places only, as, for example, at 
Lockport, Medina, and Rochester, without either an accompanying 
lowering of the water surface below the 12-foot depth profile at some 
localities, or the use of flashboards at some of the spillways to allow 
for higher stages and to prevent local discharge. A careful con- 
sideration of the subject has led to the conclusion that an average 
diversion of 1,237 cubic feet per second of water from Niagara River 
at Tonawanda will provide for the maximum conditions of traffic 
and canal losses. It is estimated that the maximum possible annual 
traffic on the canal is 18,000,000 to 21,000,000 tons of cargo. Only 
by actual use of the canal for a long period of time can it be deter- 
mined what the losses will be, what diversions will be required, or 
what the discharging capacity of the canal will prove to be under 
various conditions. It has been estimated that the maximum pos- 
sible flow of water leaving Lockport in the long level will be about 
1,600 cubic feet per second, except in case of a washout or of un- 
necessary wasting of water not far downstream from Lockport. It 
should be pointed out that the long level might have been con- 
structed with the tops of the banks and waste weirs as at present, 
but with a depth of 2.27 feet greater at Lockport, and a level bottom 
all the way to Genesee River. This would have required an average 
excavation 1.135 feet deeper, and would have involved considerable 
expense, but would have produced a canal having 12 feet depth at 
all times without requiring a flow of water to maintain slopes. The 
result would very likely have been a much smaller consumption of 
water from Niagara River at times when traffic was light, and seep- 
age and evaporation at minimum values. 

The discharge capacity of the portion of the barge canal above 
Lockport is limited by two factors; first, the depth of water to be 
maintained in the canal ; and second, the stage of Lake Erie, on which 
the stage of Niagara River at Tonawanda depends. Lake Erie can not 
fall below a stage of 570.46, United States standard datum, without 
the depth in the canal at Tonawanda becoming less than 12 feet. At 
this stage and higher stages, and with 12 feet of water on the upper 
sill of the locks at Lockport, the discharge of the canal at Lockport 
is indicated by computations to be approximately as follows : 

Discharge (cubic feet per record) of barge canal at Lockport. 

12 FEET OF WATER ON UPPER SILL. 

Lake Erie stage, United States datum, 1903 : 

570.46 } i, 280 

571 1,500 

572 1, 900 

573 2. 300 

574 2, 700 



1 12 feet depth at Tonawanda. 



134 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

With depths of only 11 J and 11 feet maintained in the canal above 
the locks the discharge conditions will be approximately as follows : 

Discharge (cubic feet per second) of barge canal at Lockport. 

11.5 FEET OF WATEE ON UPPEE SILL. 

Lake Erie stage, United States datum, 1903 : 

570. 08 2 1, 310 

571 1, 660 

572 2, 020 

573 2, 400 

574 2, 770 

11 FEET OF WATEE ON UPPEE SILL. 

Lake Erie stage, United States datum, 1903 : 

569. 69 3 1, 300 

570 1, 420 

571 1, 700 

572 2, 100 

573 2, 410 

574 2, 730 

In Table No. 9 there is given the average number of days each year 
that the average daily stage of Lake Erie at Buffalo fell below cer- 
tain elevations, during the season from May 1 to December 22, in the 
years 1913-1917, both inclusive. There is also given to the barge 
canal discharge at Lockport corresponding to each stage, under the 
assumption that the depth of water on the upper sill of the locks at 
Lockport was just 12 feet. 

Table No. 9. — Average number of days in navigation season, Lake Erie, at 
Buffalo, fell below given elevations and corresponding barge canal discharge 
at Lockport. 

[Based on season May 1 to Dec. 22, of the years 1913-1917, both inclusive.] 
TWELVE FEET OF WATER ON UPPER' SILL OF LOCKS. 



Elevation of Lake Erie 
(United States datum). 



570.50 
570.75 
571... 
571.25 



Number 
of days. 


Corre- 
sponding j 
discharge. 


1 
1 
2 
6 


1,300 
1,400 
1,500 
1,600 



Elevation of Lake Erie 
(United States datum). 



571.50 
571.75 
572... 
572.25 



Number 
of days. 



17 
31 
54 

83 



Corre- 
sponding 
discharge. 



1,700 
1,800 
1,900 
2,000 



It will be observed that the 1,237 cubic feet per second estimated 
as required for navigation purposes will be available at any aver- 
age daily stage likely to occur. The water diverted from the 
Niagara River at Tonawanda is discharged into Lake Ontario at 
Oswego or at intermediate points along the south shore of the lake, 
and so is not lost to. the Great Lakes Basin, except for the portion 
of the diversion lost by seepage and evaporation. It is, however, 
lost to the Niagara River from Tonawanda to jts mouth at Youngs- 
town. It may be mentioned that the small contributions of Tona- 
wanda and Ellicott Creeks are taken into the barge canal, except for 



2 11.5 feet depth at Tonawanda. 
8 11 feet depth at Tonawanda. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 135 

the portion of flow of the upper part of Tonawanda Creek which is 
diverted into Oak Orchard Creek, as already explained. East of 
Pittsford and Irondequoit Creek, and as far as Oswego, practically 
all the New York State drainage of the Great Lakes Basin is gath- 
ered into the barge canal and discharged down the canalized Seneca 
and Oswego Rivers into Lake Ontario at Oswego. 

At Lockport the water used for lockages, and that which leaks 
past the locks, will constitute but a very small part of the water sup- 
ply necessary for the long level, possibly 320 cubic feet per second. 
If 84 cubic feet per second is deducted as the loss from the canal by 
seepage and evaporation between Niagara River and Lockport, there 
still remains of the 1,237 cubic feet per second a volume of 833 cubic 
feet per second to be by-passed around the locks. Of this perhaps an 
average of 20 cubic feet per second will ultimately be used by the 
State hydroelectric plant situated at the lower lock. The waterway 
leading to this plant is constructed in the lock walls between the new 
and old flights of locks. To by-pass the 800 or more cubic feet per 
second of water required, the State has provided a tunnel about 15 
feet square and 700 feet long on the south side of the canal and 
abreast of the locks, leading from an entrance and gateway just up- 
stream from the new locks to a small, high, level basin within con- 
crete retaining walls, and thence past gates into a structural -steel 
flume of large diameter and about 250 feet long, which extends down 
to and out over the lower level of the canal. There are other pas- 
sages for by-passing this water, one on each side of the canal, but 
as these pertain to waterpower developments, they will be described 
in the section of this report devoted to "Diversions for power 
purposes." 

The old Erie Canal did not terminate at Tonawanda, but at 
Buffalo. From Buffalo Harbor it followed along the river front 
inside of Black Rock Harbor, as has previously been noted in this 
report in the chapter on the Black Rock Canal. Leaving Black 
Rock Harbor, it passed through the guard lock, No. 72, which is 
located between Austin and Hamilton Streets, where there was a 
slight drop in the water surface. From there the canal followed 
a land line just east of the Niagara River to Tonawanda Creek at 
Tonawanda. The water surface of Tonawanda Creek was held sev- 
eral feet higher than at present by a dam across the creek at Tona- 
wanda, which had its crest at elevation 570 barge canal datum. 
this dam was removed in the spring of 1918, and a temporary dam 
placed across the lower end of the portion of the old Erie Canal 
leading from Buffalo. The water supply for the western end of 
the old Erie Canal came almost entirely from Lake Erie at Buffalo, 
the flow being regulated at guard lock No. 72. The mean stage of 
Lake Erie for the years 1860 to 1910, inclusive, was 572.58 feet, 
United States datum. The corresponding stage of Niagara River 
at Tonawanda is 566.01 feet, United States datum, or 567.14 feet, 
barge-canal datum. When measured at Hamilton Street, Buffalo, 
in October, 1907, by the United States Lake Survey, the flow in the 
Erie Canal averaged 768 cubic feet per second. A very rough gag- 
ing of the flow at Tonawanda in the fall of 1912 showed a discharge 
of over 1,000 cubic feet per second. Not all of this volume reached 
Lockport, as there was practically always a flow over the Tonawanda 
Dam, as well as some spill into Niagara River at the waste weir at 



136 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Niagara Street, between Kohler and Bouck Streets, Tonawanda, and 
some leakage at the Tonawanda side-cut lock, as well as a small 
amount of seepage and evaporation along the entire route. 

In a letter dated February 10, 1911, the State engineer and sur- 
veyor of New York reported to the Lake Survey that the average 
water requirement for the western end of the old Erie Canal was 
700 cubic feet per second, which was necessary to maintain the slope 
and navigable depth in the long level from Lockport to Rochester, 
covering evaporation, seepage, and spillway losses, and a supply of 
210 cubic feet per second for lockage, seepage, and evaporation east 
of Rochester. The requirement for lockage at Lockport was stated 
as 100 cubic feet per second, leaving 600 cubic feet per second to be 
by-passed around the locks. Of the TOO cubic feet per second passing 
eastward from Lockport to maintain the long level, 200 was assumed 
to be lost by leakage, seepage, and evaporation, leaving 290 cubic 
feet per second to be spilled at various wasteways along the level, 
notably at Grasport, Medina, Albion, and Adams Basin. It was 
stated that the average amount spilled at Medina was 108 cubic feet 
per second, and at Albion 111 cubic feet per second. Under condi- 
tions of maximum lockage, seepage, and evaporation the average 
total diversion was considerably exceeded. It was further stated 
that an additional quantity, averaging 233 cubic feet per second, 
was diverted from Lake Erie, solely for power purposes, being di- 
verted around the locks at Lockport, and into Eighteenmile Creek. 
This matter will be considered later in connection with the descrip- 
tion of the water power developments at Lockport. 

The water supply of the Rome summit level comes from local 
streams north and south of the canal. The Black River Canal and 
its Forestport feeder have both been described in the present chapter. 
There are not less than 12 natural lakes and artificial reservoirs dis- 
charging into the upper end of the feeder at Forestport. By the 
terms of an agreement with owners of water powers on Black River 
below Boonville a volume of 11,000 cubic feet per minute, or 183 
cubic feet per second, may be delivered continuously down Black 
River Canal to the south, provided 5,000 cubic feet per minute, or 
about 79 cubic feet per second, remain to be diverted northward. 
On the basis of a division in this ratio, Mr. Kuichling estimated the 
supply to the Rome summit level by way of the Black River Canal 
would be only 100 cubic feet per second. The distance from Forest- 
port to the barge canal at Rome, as traversed by the feed water, is 
about 46 miles, the descent being about 700 feet, occurring largely 
at the 70 locks en route along Black River Canal. This supply for- 
merly served the old Erie Canal. For the barge canal there have 
been constructed two large reservoirs north of the canal, known as 
Delta Reservoir and Hinckley Reservoir. Delta Reservoir is on the 
Mohawk River, about 5 miles due north of the city of Rome. It has 
been created by the building of a high concrete dam, and covers about 
4r} square miles when full, impounding the drainage from 137 square 
miles. The available water supply was estimated by Mr. Landreth 
to be about 150 cubic feet per second. The ^Hinckley Reservoir is 
on West Canada Creek, above the village of Hinckley, about 15 miles 
east of Delta Reservoir and 17 miles northeast of the nearest point 
on the barge canal. It was formed by the construction of a large 
earth dam, has an area of 4§ square miles when full, and impounds 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 137 

the drainage from 372 square miles. Hinckley Reservoir averages 
somewhat deeper than Delta Reservoir and its capacity is corre- 
spondingly greater. Its available supply is estimated to be about 280 
cubic feet per second, assuming one-third of the flow to pass on down 
West Canada Creek to supply water powers between Trenton Falls 
and Herkimer. Water from Delta Reservoir is supplied to the Rome 
summit level at Rome through the Mohawk River. 

Water from Hinckley Reservoir flows down West Canada Creek 
to Trenton Falls, where a portion of it is diverted through an arti- 
ficial canal 5.7 miles long to Nine Mile Creek, through which it is 
fed into the summit level between Rome and Oriskany. It has 
been stated already in this chapter that the portion of the old Erie 
Canal between Butternut Creek feeder; about 5 miles east of Syracuse, 
and Xew London, on the Rome summit level, has been retained as a 
navigable feeder and connected with the summit level by a new 
junction lock. There are five feeders bringing water from the south 
into this portion of the old Erie Canal, all of which were constructed 
years ago for the purpose of feeding the old canal. They are the 
following : Orville feeder, drawing from Butternut Creek and James- 
ville Reservoir ; Fayetteville feeder, delivering from Limestone Creek 
and De Ru}i:er Reservoir; Chittenango feeder, drawing from Chit- 
tenango Creek, Erieville Reservoir and Cazenovia Lake ; Cowasselon 
feeder, delivering from Cowasselon Creek; and Oneida feeder, de- 
livering from Oneida Creek. It is important to note that most of 
the water supply to De Ruyter Reservoir is derived by diverting 
into it the flow of the upper portion of Tioughnioga River, which is 
a tributary of the Chenango River, which in turn is a branch of the 
Susqueshanna, and so discharges into Chesapeake Bay. The total 
supply to the Rome summit level from this source was estimated by 
Mr. Kuichling to be about 35 cubic feet per second. Another feeder 
of the summit level is Oriskan}^ Creek, which enters the Mohawk 
River from the south about 7j miles east of Rome. This creek rises 
about 25 miles due south of Rome. The upper portion of its drainage 
area, together with that of some of the upper branches and tributaries 
of the Chenango River, was formerly used to supply the summit level 
of the Chenango Canal, and an extensive system of storage reservoirs 
was established by the State in this locality. 

On the abandonment of the Chenango Canal, however, its summit 
level and water resources were retained to feed the old Erie Canal 
through Oriskany Creek. The reservoirs, all of which are on streams 
originally tributary to the Chenango River, are as follows: Eaton 
Brook Reservoir, Ffatch Lake Reservoir, Bradley Reservoir, Kingsley 
Brook Reservoir, Madison Brook Reservoir, Leland Pond Reservoir, 
and several small ponds. These all discharge into the summit level 
of the Chenango Canal, which, in turn, discharges into the headwaters 
of Oriskany Creek. The water supply from this source, as estimated 
by Mr. Kuichling, was about 35 cubic feet per second. The total 
estimated supply for the Rome summit level is the sum of the quanti- 
ties given above, or 600 cubic feet per second. The estimated water 
supply required for the summit level is about 440 cubic feet per 
second. It is to be noted that of the 600 cubic feet per second con- 
stituting the supply, 430 cubic feet per second, the portion from Delta 
and Hinckley Reservoirs, is naturally tributary to the Hudson River, 
while of the 170 cubic feet per second remainder at least 35 cubic 



138 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

feet per second is naturally tributary to the Susquehanna River, 
leaving only 135 cubic feet per second naturally tributary to the Great 
Lakes. It is estimated by Mr. Landreth that the water supply re- 
quired just west of the summit level for conditions pertaining to an 
annual traffic of 10,000,000 tons of cargo, including evaporation, 
seepage, leakage, spillway losses, lockages, and lock operation, is 
213 cubic feet per second, and that the corresponding requirement 
just east of the summit level is 219 cubic feet per second. These 
values are so nearly identical that they may be considered equal, each 
220 cubic feet per second. It is evident, then, that none of the water 
tributary to the Great Lakes escapes by way of the barge canal into 
the Mohawk Valley, but that, on the contrary about 85 cubic feet 
per second is gained by the Great Lakes Basin, part of this coming 
from the Mohawk Basin, and part from the eastern headwaters of 
the Susquehanna River. 

Photographs Nos. 29 to 46, inclusive, illustrate various features 
of this notable waterway. Explanations and descriptions are given 
beneath the pictures. 

6. ST. LAWRENCE RIVER CANALS. 

Description of St. Lawrence River. — The quantities of water di- 
verted from the St. Lawrence River by the various canals are very 
small, with exception of the Massena Canal, where the diversion 
is very large. In every case the water diverted is returned to the 
river again within a distance of 1J to 10f miles. The diversion by 
the Galop Canal is between 500 and 1,000 cubic feet per second, on 
the average, of which 200 or less is for navigation use. The diversion 
by the Morrisburg Canal is between 1,000 and 1,500 cubic feet per 
second, of which possibly 200 is required for navigation purposes. 
In both these instances the balance of the diversion is used for power 
development. The navigation requirement does not exist in winter 
time, but power is, in general, developed the year around. The 
Farran Point Canal diverts probably less than 50 cubic feet per 
second on the average, all for navigation use. The diversion by the 
Cornwall Canal appears to average somewhat less than 3,000 cubic 
feet per second. Of this, during the navigation season, an average 
of perhaps 300 cubic feet per second is required by navigation. The 
remainder is utilized in power development. 

The diversion through the Massena Canal is entirely for power de- 
velopment, and will be treated in section (c) of this report. In the 
same section the power features of the Galop, Morrisburg, and Corn- 
wall canals are presented. The flow in Little River, at Waddington 
is described in this section also. 

In the following paragraphs the navigation canals of the St. 
Lawrence River above St. Regis are described, with special refer- 
ence to the navigation features. On Plates Nos. 9 and 10 these canals 
are shown in their relationship to certain sections of St. Lawrence 
River. 

The St. Lawrence River is the outlet of the Great Lakes to the 
sea, debouching from the northeasterly corner of Lake Ontario and 
flowing thence in a northeasterly direction 700 miles to Anticosti 
Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is nearly 1,200 miles from 
Lake Ontario to the open sea at the Strait of Belle Isle. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 139 

For a distance of 62 miles, from Tibbetts Point at the head of the 
St. Lawrence to Ogdensburg, N. Y., the fall in the water surface is 
only 0.87 foot at mean stage, and from there to Lock No. 27 at the head 
of the Galop Rapids, 6 miles, the fall at mean stage is 1.32 feet more. 
Throughout this reach the river is broad, and, for the greater por- 
tion of the distance, from the lake down to Brockville, Ontario, is 
divided into channels by a great number of islands. There is a 
natural navigable channel 28 feet deep or over, except for the possi- 
bility of undiscovered shoals, and 400 or more feet wide, which is 
wholly in United States waters except for about 7-J miles, from Cross- 
Over Island through the Brockville Narrows. 

From Ogdensburg to Montreal, 120 miles, the river is generally 
narrow and swift, and is much less cut up by islands. All the 
rapids of the St. Lawrence occur in this reach, the total fall at low 
stage being about 224 feet, or from elevation 242 to elevation 18. 

Fifty miles below Montreal is the head of Lake St. Peter, the 
most upstream point at which tide is observable. Except for this 
lake, the reach of river from Montreal to Quebec, 150 miles, is 
of moderate width and has few islands. From Quebec to the Gulf the 
stream is very broad. Channel improvements have secured a depth 
of 30 feet from Montreal to the sea, the dredged channel extending 
to Father Point, 175 miles below Quebec. The improved channel is 
450 feet wide between Montreal and Quebec, being from 600 to 750 
feet wide at bends. Below Quebec it is 1,000 feet wide. 

At St. Regis, N. Y., opposite Cornwall, Ontario, the St. Lawrence 
passes wholly into Canadian territory and ceases to be a boundary 
stream, 114 miles from Lake Ontario. It is to be noted that in the 
total distance from Lake Ontario to the sea, United States waters 
are comprised in only the upper one-tenth thereof, the remaining 
nine-tenths being wholly Canadian waters. The mean river eleva- 
tion at Lock No. 15 at Cornwall is 153.42, showing a fall from Lake 
Ontario at Tibbetts Point of 92.66 feet. 

The mean elevation of Lake Ontario at Oswego, N. Y., for the 
years 1860 to 1917, both inclusive, is 246.18 feet on United States 
standard datum. The discharge of the St. Lawrence River at this 
stage, as determined at two gauging sections just below Iroquois, 
Ontario, is 241,000 cubic feet per second. At this stage the change 
in discharge per foot change in stage is approximately 21,500 cubic 
feet per second. 

At Galop Rapids the river has a fall of about 9 feet in 3 miles, 
from Adams Island at the head of Galop Canal to Lotus Island. The 
channel north of Galop Island, in Canadian waters, is navigable by 
light draft boats. The south channel, which is in American waters, 
is not navigable. 

From Lotus Island to Iroquois, about 5J miles, there is a fall of 
about 6 J feet. The river follows a tortuous channel and the current 
is swift. This is all properly a part of the Galop Rapids, although 
the swiftest portions, namely, those abreast of Cardinal, Ontario, and 
Point Iroquois, are frequently designated, respectively, as the Car- 
dinal Rapids and the Point Iroquois Rapids. The Galop Canal, de- 
scribed later, provides for passing navigation around these rapids. 

It is 4£ miles from Lock No. 25, at Iroquois, to Lock No. 24, at the 
head of Morrisburg Canal, abreast the head of Rapide Plat, and the 
fall in this distance is approximately 3 feet. The river has but a 



140 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

single channel, and the current is swift. This is the most difficult 
portion of the river for upbound vessels, where a canal is not pro- 
vided. 

In the Rapide Plat there is a fall of about 12 feet in approximately 
3J miles. This rapids has a ruling depth of about 12 feet at low 
water, and a sinuous channel. Ogden Island, which is United States 
territory, forms the south shore of this rapids. The Morrisburg 
Canal follows the Canadian shore the full length of the rapids. 

Between Ogden Island and the main American shore is the " Little 
River," which is shallow, narrow, and winding, and is not navigable, 
except by small steam and motor boats, above and below a dam which 
crosses it at Waddington, 1ST. Y. The dam is a dilapidated timber 
and rock structure about 950 feet long and 12 feet high. At present 
the flow through Little River is approximately 1.1 per cent of the 
total St. Lawrence discharge. 

From Lock No. 23, at the foot of Morrisburg Canal, at Morris- 
burg, Ontario, to the Farran Point Canal, 9^ miles, the fall is about 
'7-J feet. The channel is winding and the current generally swift. 

The Farran Point Rapids, on the Canadian side of Croil Island, 
is little more than a mile long, but is narrow and swift, having a 
fall of 4 feet. Farran Point Canal, along the Canadian shore, over- 
comes this rapids. 

It is 5 miles from Lock 22, at the foot of Farran Point Canal to 
the head of the Cornwall Canal, and the fall in water surface is 0.5 
foot at mean stage. In this reach the river is separated into two 
channels by large islands, and the slopes in the two channels differ 
considerably. 

The Long Sault Rapids commence at the head of the Cornwall 
Canal, near Dickinson's Landing, Ontario, and extend about 10^ 
miles by the main channel to Lock No. 15 at Cornwall, Ontario. The 
total fall is 47.4 feet, the fall in the swiftest portion, however, being 
28-J- feet in less than 3 miles. Several large islands divide the river 
into channels through this reach. What is known as the " South 
Sault Rapids " is the American channel between the American shore 
and Long Sault Island. This channel is narrow and sinuous, the 
current is very swift, and navigation is impracticable. Near the 
upper end of the South Sault, and not far upstream from the head 
of the Long Sault Rapids, the Massena Canal diverts water on the 
United States side for power development. The Cornwall Canal 
extends along the Canadian shore the full length of the Long Sault 
Rapids. 

The only bridge across the St. Lawrence where it borders the 
United States is at Cornwall. This is a single-track bridge of the 
New York & Ottawa Railway. There are two parts to this bridge, 
one across the channel to the north of Cornwall Island, the other 
across the channel south of the island. That across the south or 
American channel consists of three spans. The middle span is 372 
feet, and the two end spans are 370 feet each, all from center to center 
of piers. The piers are about 12 feet wide at the water line. The 
spans are fixed and have 37J feet of headroom above high water dur- 
ing the season of navigation. 

The bridge across the north channel also consists of three spans, 
the middle span being 420 feet long, the north span 212.5 feet, and 
the south span 210.5 feet, all from center to center of piers, with the 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 141 

piers about 16 feet wide at the water line. The middle span, which 
covers the part of the river now used by downbound passenger boats, 
has 60 feet of headroom at high water. There are no lights displayed 
nor buoys marking the approach, because the bridge is at the foot 
of Long Sault Rapids, and this part of the river is navigated only in 
daylight and by special boats. There is a draw span carrying this 
railway over the Cornwall Canal. 

For the purposes of this report the character of the St. Lawrence 
below St. Regis is of little interest. It may be noted that Lake St. 
Frances, an expansion of the river, commences just below St. Regis 
and extends for 30 miles to Coteau Landing, the fall in this reach 
being about half a foot. From Coteau Landing the next 14 miles of 
river is practically a continuous rapids, although the swifter portions 
are named in order Coteau Rapids, Cedars Rapids, Split Rock 
Rapids, and The Cascades. The total fall is about 84 feet. It may 
be added parenthetically that there is a large modern power develop- 
ment at Cedars Rapids, a large proportion of whose power is trans- 
mitted to the plant of the Aluminum Company of America, at Mas- 
sena, N. Y. The Soulanges Canal overcomes these rapids for navi- 
gation, extending along the north bank from Coteau Landing to Cas- 
cades point. On the south bank is the Beauharnois Canal, extending 
from Valleyfield to Melocheville. This canal was abandoned for 
navigation use a few years ago and is now used for power develop- 
ment. Lake St. Louis, another expansion of the St. Lawrence, ex- 
tends from Cascades Point to Lachine, 15 miles, the fall being about 
2 feet. The Ottawa River discharges much of its flow into this lake. 
The Lachine Rapids extend 9 miles from Lachine to Montreal and 
have a fall of 45 feet. This rapids is overcome by the Lachine 
Canal on the north bank of the river. 

Generally speaking, the St. Lawrence River and canals from 
Ogdensburg to Montreal will accommodate vessels 255 feet long, 42 
feet beam, and drawing 14 feet of water. Except for a few ruling 
shoals a draft several feet deeper could be carried in the river por- 
tions between the canals. At the upper end of Galop Rapids the 
river channel has been improved to accommodate an 8-foot draft. 
In the Rapide Plat a draft of 14 feet is accommodated at mean stage, 
and 12 feet at low stage. In the Long Sault Rapids the limiting 
depth is about 8 feet at mean stage. 

Between Ogdensburg and the head of Cornwall Canal there is 
practically no navigation between dark and dawn, except on clear 
moonlight nights. There are no river lights, and the arrangements 
for illuminating locks and canals are meager. 

Navigation through the St. Lawrence River and its canals is 
greatty interfered with by ice conditions, being closed on the average 
from December 3 to April 27, 144 days per annum, as shown by the 
records for 50 years. 

Galop Canal. — The Galop Canal has already been described as 
being the most upstream of the St. Lawrence canals, and as over- 
coming the Galop, Cardinal, and Point Iroquois Rapids, extending 
along the Canadian shore from Adams Island, at the head of Galop 
Rapids, to Iroquois, Ontario, just below Point Iroquois. It is %\ 
miles long, 14 feet deep, 80 feet wide at the bottom, and 144 feet 
wide at the surface. About three-fourths mile below the head of 



142 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

the canal there are two locks abreast of each other. That nearest 
the river is No. 28, and is known as the " lift lock." It connects this 
short upper reach of the canal with the river above Cardinal. It is 
303 feet long, 45 feet wide at the bottom, 47^ feet wide at the top, 
has 14 feet of water over the miter sills, and has a lift of about 5 feet. 
The other lock is No. 27, and is called a guard lock. There is usually 
a lift of 1 or 2 feet at this lock, depending on the river stage and 
the depth of water maintained in the canal below. Lock 27 is 
270 feet long, available length for boats 255 feet, 45 feet w.ide at bot- 
tom, 46 feet 10 inches wide at the top, and having 14 feet of water 
on the sills. At the lower end of the canal, at Iroquois, is Lock No. 
25, which is 800 feet long, 50 feet wide, and has 14 feet of water on 
the upper sill and somewhat greater depth on the lower sill. The 
lift is approximately 14 feet, and varies somewhat with river stage 
and canal level. The locks are operated by hand. 

Practically all upbound vessels enter Lock 25 and proceed up the 
canal. A few fast passenger boats habitually run up the river past 
Cardinal and enter the canal through Lock 28. Occasionally a fast 
freight boat takes this same course when otherwise it would be delayed 
waiting for Lock 25. A few small boats run the rapids all the way 
when downbound. All other downbound vessels enter the head of 
Galop Canal, lock out into the river at Lock 28, and run down the 
remainder of the rapids. It is reported that small swift steamers 
sometimes run up the entire rapids in spring before the canal is 
opened to navigation. 

There are two bridges across the canal, both of which are hand- 
operated, swing bridges having a clear span across the canal. The 
bridge at Cardinal carries a highway and a spur-track. When 
closed it has a clear headroom of some 15 to 20 feet. The bridge at 
Iroquois, just upstream from Lock 25, carries a highway, and has 
only a few feet of headroom when closed. 

The old Galop Canal followed nearly the same route as the present 
canal, except at Cardinal. The present canal follows a more direct 
route through a deep cut behind the town. The old canal follows the 
curve of the shore around in front of the town, and the upstream 
half of this old route is still used as a power canal. The old lock 
No. 26, still exists, except for the gates, and is located abreast the 
center of the town. There is no new lock having this number, as the 
intermediate lift was eliminated in the new canal. Old Lock No. 27, 
which was about half a mile upstream from the present Lock No. 27, 
was removed during the reconstruction. Old Lock No. 25, without its 
gates, still exists at Iroquois, not far from new Lock No. 25. It forms, 
part of the present tailrace from the waste weir and power houses. 

The original cost of construction of the Galop Canal is not known. 
The cost of enlargement was $6,121,214. The cost of maintenance and 
operation is not known for this canal separately. For the Galop, 
Morrisburg and Farran Point canals taken together it will be given 
further on. 

The freight transported in this canal in the three years 1915, 1916 
and 1917 averaged 3,700,000 short tons per annum, about three- 
quarters of which was eastbound. The number of vessel passages was, , 
in 1915, 8,641 ; in 1916, 8,325 ; in 1917, 8,701. 

The diversion of water from the St. Lawrence River through this 
canal is between 500 and 1,000 cubic feet per second, of which 200- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 143 

cubic feet per second or less is for navigation purposes. The bal- 
ance is used developing power, as will be explained in Section C of 
this report. A little of this diversion is returned to the river at 
Lock 28, a considerable portion at Cardinal, and the remainder at 
Iroquois. 

Just upstream from the Galop Canal is an artificial channel 
named the North Channel, which was constructed by Canada as an 
aid to navigation. It is 2^ miles long, 300 feet wide, and 16 feet 
deep, and cuts through Spencer and Drummond Islands. Its cost 
was $1,718,779. Its construction would have caused a permanent 
lowering oi the river above, and of Lake Ontario, had not a pier or 
breakwater been extended into the river from its upstream end in 
such manner as partially to shut off the river flow. This channel 
and pier have caused a redistribution of the river flow, but no di- 
version of water from the river. 

In connection with this improvement a dam was constructed across 
what is known as the "Gut," between Adams and Galop Islands. 
This dam has raised the level of Lake Ontario approximately half 
a foot. 

Photograph No. 47 shows the waste weir and gates beside No. 27. 
Photograph No. 48 is of the canal prism with the river in the back- 
ground. 

Morrisburg Canal. — The Plat Rapids, or Eapide Plat, previously 
described, are overcome for navigation by the Morrisburg Canal 
which is 3f miles long, and extends along the Canadian shore from 
the head of the rapids to Morrisburg, Ontario. This canal has a 
depth of 14 feet on the lock sills, and also in the canal prism which 
is 80 feet wide on the bottom, 152 feet wide at the water surface, 
and is somewhat enlarged on the curves. The total lift of about 11J 
feet is overcome by two locks each 270 feet long. Lock No. 24 is 
about 1,000 feet within the head of the canal and is styled a guard 
lock, although ordinarily it has a lift of 1 to 3 feet. It has a 
bottom width of 45 feet and a top width of 46 feet 11 inches. Lock 
No. 23, at the foot of the canal, is the lift lock proper. It has a 
bottom width of 44 feet 2 inches and a top width of 46 feet 11 inches. 

Old Lock No. 24, without gates, is abreast the new lock, on the 
river side, and forms part of the wasteway bypass channel around 
the new lock. Old Lock No. 23 is near the new lock, at Morrisburg, 
on the land side. It is still in commission and is used occasionally. 
Its length is 200 feet, available length for boats 175 feet, breadth 45 
feet, and depth of water on the miter sills 9 feet. 

All the locks are operated by hand, and all have the filling and 
emptying valves in the gates. 

There are no bridges across this canal. 

All upbound vessels use the canal. All downbound vessels run 
the rapids except during seasons of very low water, when the deeper 
draft boats pass down the canal. 

The original cost of construction is unknown. The cost of en- 
largement was $2,158,242. The cost of maintenance and operation is 
not known for this canal separately. 

The freight tonnage transported and number of vessel passages 
are the same as for the Galop Canal for upbound boats, and con- 
siderablv less for downbound boats. 



144 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The diversion of water from the St. Lawrence River through this 
canal is between 1,000 and 1,500 cubic feet per second, of which pos- 
sibly 200 cubic feet per second is used for navigation requirements. 
The remainder is used in power development, as will be explained in 
section (c). All this water is returned to the river at Morrisburg. 

Photograph No. 49 shows the largest size St. Lawrence freight 
steamer ready to leave Lock 24, upbound. 

Farran Point Canal. — The Farran Point Rapids, previously men- 
tioned, is navigated by all downbound boats except the few taking 
the American channel to Richards Bay. All upbound vessels take the 
Farran Point Canal which extends along the Canadian shore abreast 
of the rapids. 

This canal is 1% miles long, 90 feet wide at the bottom, 154 feet 
wide at the water surface, and is 14 feet deep. There is one lock, No. 
22, which is located at the downstream end of the canal. It is 800 
feet long, 50 feet wide, has 14 feet of water on the sills, and has a lift 
of approximately 3^ feet. 

On the land side of this lock is old Lock No. 22, which is 200 feet 
long, 45 feet wide, and has 9 feet of water on the sills. Both locks 
are at the town of Farran Point. 

The locks are operated by hand, 

There is no bridge across this canal. 

The cost of enlargement was $877,091. 

All upbound freight passing through Galop Canal passes through 
this canal also. Practically no downbound freight enters this canal. 

The diversion of water is all for navigation and probably does not 
average as much as 50 cubic feet per second. It is simply diverted 
around the rapids for a distance of 1J miles. 

The three canals just described, namely, Galop, Morrisburg, and 
Farran Point, are known collectively as the Williamsburg group. 
The original cost of construction of all three was $1,320,656, which 
was expended prior to 1868. The enlargement began about 1885 and 
was completed about 1908. The total cost to March, 1916, of opera- 
tion and maintenance of all three canals was $1,511,903. The income 
during the same period was $297,559. 

Cormoall Canal. — The Cornwall Canal overcomes the Long Sault 
Rapids, extending along the Canadian shore of the river from just 
below Dickinson Landing 11 miles to Cornwall. It is 90 feet wide at 
bottom, 154 feet wide at the water surface, and 14 feet deep. About 
2| miles of its length is considerably- wider, following the natural 
channel between Sheek Island and the north main shore. 

The total lift, which is 48 feet, is overcome by 6 locks, each 270 feet 
long, 45 feet wide, and having 14 feet of water on the miter sills. 
Of these. Lock No. 21 is about ^ mile within the head of the canal. 
From Lock 21 it is about 5 miles to a guard gate which is a short 
distance above Lock 20. It is about 1J miles from Lock 20 to Lock 
19, and nearly the same distance from Lock 19 to Lock 18. Locks 
Nos. 17 and 15 are at Cornwall, at the downstream end of the canal. 
There is no new lock No. 16. The lift at Lock 21 is usually only a 
few feet. At the other locks the lifts are about as follows : No. 20, 
7 feet .; No. 19, 6 feet ; No. 18, 7 feet ; Nos. 17 and 15, 14 feet each. The 
locks are operated electrically, and the canal and locks are lighted 
by electricity. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 145 

The old locks are still available, with the exception of No. 21. 
They are each 200 feet long, 45 feet wide, with 9 feet of water on 
the miter sills. Each old lock is abreast of the new lock of corre- 
sponding number, except at the lower , end' of the canal, where old 
Locks Nos. 15, 16, and 17 are located near the two new locks. 

The single-track drawbridge of the New York & Ottawa Railway 
which crosses the canal just above Cornwall has already been men- 
tioned. There are also two highway swing drawbridges across the 
canal, one at Cornwall and one at Mille Roches. These have center 
piers in the canal. 

A few specially constructed passenger steamers shoot the Long 
Sault Rapids. All other vessels, both upbound and downbound, take 
the canal. 

The original cost of the canal was $1,945,625. Cost of enlarge- 
ment was $5,300,679. Cost of operation and maintenance to March, 
1916, was $3,102,415. Receipts to the same date were $592,038. 

The freight transported in this canal in the three years 1915, ; 
1916, and 1917 averaged 3,700,000 short tons per annum, about 
three- fourths of which was eastbound. The number of vessel pas- 
sages was, in 1915, 8,641; in 1916, 8,325; and in 1917, 8,701. 

The amount of water diverted from St. Lawrence River by the 
Cornwall Canal appears to average roundly about 3,000 cubic feet 
per second. Of this, during the navigation season, an average of 
perhaps 300 cubic feet per second is required for navigation uses. 
The remainder is utilized in power development, as will be described 
in section (c) of this report. The diverted water is returned to the 
river partly at Mille Roches and partly at Cornwall, all within a 
distance of 5 to 11 miles of the point of diversion. 

7. PROPOSED ERIE & ONTARIO SANITARY CANAL. 

The Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. proposes to construct a 
combined ship, sanitary, and power canal from Lake Erie to Lake 
Ontario, and to divert 26,000 cubic feet of water per second through 
it. The route is shown on Plate No. 6. 

Description of canal. — The proposed canal is to start from a 
new harbor south of. Lackawanna, N. Y., where new breakwaters 
and piers are proposed, extending from Woodlawn Beach out into 
Lake Erie about 4 miles to Seneca Shoal. At the east end of the 
harbor a lock is to be provided for lowering vessels about 8 feet 
into the head of the canal. From this lock the route as planned starts 
toward the east, turns north on a radius of about 15,000 feet, and 
runs along the eastern outskirts of Buffalo through Hamburg, West 
Seneca, Cheektowaga, and Amherst Townships. In Pendleton Town- 
ship it crosses the New York State Barge Canal at grade. It then 
passes through the west edge of Lockport Township, to the top of 
the Niagara escarpment, just west of the "Lockport Gulf." Here 
a pair of enormous balanced lift locks of novel design and unprece- 
dented dimensions are to overcome the drop of 209 feet to the level 
below. The canal then crosses the "Ontario Plain " at an elevation 
of about 351 feet, through the township of Newfane, to another pair 
of lift locks, which serve the drop of 104 feet to the level of Lake 
Ontario in Eighteenmile Creek, about 2 miles from its mouth. 
27880—21 10 



146 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

A large harbor is planned to be constructed at Olcott, at the mouth 
of the creek. North of the barge canal the line follows very closely 
the Tonawanda- Olcott route projected by the Board of Engineers 
on Deep Waterways, the main canal is 30 feet deep throughout, and 
has a berm 5 feet above water level on each side, the berm along 
one side being 10 feet wide while on the other side it is 40 feet wide. 
From Lake Erie to the point where the river branch from Tona- 
wanda and Black Bock enters, the cross sections are designed to be 
as follows: In rock section the bottom width is 250 feet, and the 
side slopes 10 on 1 both above and below the berm. Overlying 
earth is in every case given a slope of 1 on 2, and a berm is left 
at the rock surface. In sections partly earth and partly rock, if 
retaining walls are used, the standard rock section is adopted up to 
rock surface, and vertical faced retaining walls extend from the rock 
surface up to the berm 5 feet above water line, the excavated areas 
behind the walls being backfilled. In sections partly in earth and 
partly in rock, where no retaining walls are used, and in sections 
wholly in earth, the bottom width is 200 feet, the side slopes are 
1 on 2, and a berm 10 feet wide and 5 feet below water surface is 
provided on each side of the canal. From the River Branch junc- 
tion to Lake Ontario the bottom width for each type of section is 
5<0 feet greater, the other characteristics remaining unchanged. 
Available depth of water in the locks is to be 30 feet. The total 
length of the main canal, exclusive of the harbors, is 40 miles. It is 
17J miles from Lake Erie along the route to the River Branch junc- 
tion, 3J miles from there to the barge canal crossing, 8 miles fur- 
ther to the high twin locks, and 9 miles between the two sets of 
twin locks. The excavation is very heavy and is largely in rock, 
the overburden reaching a maximum of approximately 140 feet. 

A branch canal starts at Black Rock and follows the line of the 
old Erie Canal to Twomile Creek, then turns eastward along the 
general line of the " State Ditch " and Ellicott Creek and joins the 
main canal near Getzville. This canal has a depth of 12 feet, a bot- 
tom width of 100 feet, and side slopes of 1 on 2 with a 10-foot 
berm on each side 5 feet under water and another 10- foot berm on 
each side 5 feet above water. The length of the branch canal is 13-| 
miles. 

Diversions. — Of the proposed 26,000 cubic feet per second dis- 
charge through the canal, 4,800 is to go through the Black Rock 
Canal and the River Branch Canal, the remaining 21,200 cubic feet 
per second entering the main channel south of Lackawanna. In 
each part of the system the velocity will be approximately 3 feet per 
second. In the greater part of the ship canal, which is through rock, 
this velocity will delay upbound vessels somewhat, but not exces- 
sively. The case is different, however, in the 7 or 8 miles of earth 
section. Mr. Alfred Noble, in his studies for the Board of Engineers 
on Deep Waterways, stated that the backwash due to vessels navigat- 
ing an earth section of a canal should not. exceed 3 feet per second, 
and that a velocity of 3-J feet per second would cause excessively great 
cost in maintaining the banks. In the earth sections of this canal 
the backwash from the slowest upbound boat, added to the current 
of the canal, will produce a velocity along the banks exceeding this 
value, and with large steamers moving at 4 miles per hour the 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 147 

current along the banks would amount to 4.2 feet per second. As 
economical operation requires ship speeds of 8 miles per hour or 
thereabouts, it is evident that the earth section as designed is en- 
tirely inadequate. The river branch is designed to serve as an 
extension of the barge canal system, and for the type of boat em- 
ployed on this system a current of 3 feet per second is much too 
oreat. By enlargement of various sections of the canal these diffi- 
culties could be overcome, but only at considerable expense. 

The grade crossing near Pendleton of the ship canal and New York 
State Barge Canal affords a weak point in the proposed scheme. A 
volume of flow of 26,000 cubic feet per second is to be discharged 
into the crossing by the ship canal, and an equal volume abstracted 
on the opposite side. Similarly a flow of perhaps 1,200 cubic feet 
per second is contributed by the barge canal on one side and ab- 
stracted on the other. The resulting eddies and cross-currents would 
seem to render the crossing difficult of navigation, particularly by 
strings of barges in the barge canal. An expensive structure could 
probably be designed which would protect the crossing by guard 
gates and carry most of the water beneath the crossing through in- 
verted syphons, or the cross currents could be reduced by excavating 
a large and expensive basin at the junction. This grade crossing 
would be very much more difficult than the grade crossing of the 
barge canal and Genesee River at Rochester, partly because the 
Genesee is very wide at the crossing, but mostly because the volumes 
of flow to be handled are almost always so very much smaller in the 
Rochester case. 

Objections. — There are two fatal objections to the proposition as 
a ship canal. The first is its great length as compared to other avail- 
able routes. If portions of the Niagara River are utilized the arti- 
ficial ship canal between Lakes Erie and Ontario need be only 8 miles 
long by the LaSalle-Lewiston route, or 25 miles long by the Tona- 
wanda-Olcott route, as these routes were projected by the Deep 
Waterways Board. From Lewiston to Lake Ontario the Niagara 
River is wide and deep, and of moderate current, requiring but the 
removal of a small shoal at its mouth to make it readily navigable 
by deep draft vessels. Above LaSalle the upper Niagara River re- 
quires only a moderate amount of improvement to make it navigable 
for 30-foot draft with far greater speed and safety than any ship 
canal. The Deep Waterways Board reported that " between Buf- 
falo and a point common to the two routes in Lake Ontario * * * 
in a 30- foot channel a steamship of 27 feet draft would be one hour 
and forty-three minutes longer by the Tonawanda route. Since the 
cost of maintenance of the Lewiston waterway would be less than for 
the route from Tonawanda to Olcott, the interest and expense ac- 
counts will be much less for the former, and as the actual time saved 
by a steamship on the Lewiston route would be from 11 to 16 per cent 
of the time of passage, it is evident that both economy in construc- 
tion and cost of transportation definitely determine the Lewiston 
waterway as the preferable route." The proposed Seneca Shoal- 
Olcott Route of the Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. has a length 
of 40 miles. Every reason which makes the LaSalle route better 
than the Tonawanda route applies with double force to a comparison 
between the LaSalle-Lewiston and the Seneca Shoal-Olcott routes. 



148 DIVEKSION OF ' WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

The other fatal objection is the fact that the proposed canal route 
intersects every railroad and road entering Buffalo from the west, 
south, and east, at each of which crossings a drawbridge would 
be required unless the crossings were abandoned. This is probably 
the most serious objection of all. 

North of the State of Georgia the only low pass through the Ap- 
palachian Range from the Atlantic seaboard to the interior of the 
United States is by way of the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk 
Rivers. The most important rail routes from New York and New 
England follow this pass, and they all enter Buffalo, which, because 
of its strategic position at the junction of the western end of this 
pass and eastern end of the chain of upper Great Lakes, has become 
one of the largest, most important, and also most congested railroad 
centers in the United States. The proposed canal cuts every one 
of the great lines of communication between the East and West 
through this pass, and cuts some of them twice. In the first 15 miles 
from Lake Erie it intersects 10 electric railroad tracks, 21 highways 
having no trolley tracks, and 52 steam railroad tracks. 

It is estimated that a total of more than 70 separate drawbridges 
will be required for the entire route. A drawbridge over a ship 
canal is always a source of delay to traffic both over the bridge and 
in the canal. As it is impracticable for large vessels to stop in 
canals they are customarily given right of way, and land traffic is ac- 
cordingly delayed. Notwithstanding having the right of way, steam- 
ers usually find it necessary to reduce speed to a minimum in the vi- 
cinity of drawbridges, and thus suffer considerable delay. Occasion- 
ally the bridge operating mechanism fails to work promptly, and 
then serious accidents often occur. In a current of 3 feet per sec- 
ond the difficulties would be intensified. Downbound vessels would 
not have steerage way unless making at least 4 to 5 miles per hour 
with respect to the bank. At such speed they could not be stopped 
quickly. In brief, such a condition as would necessarily prevail in 
the first 15 miles of the route from Lake Erie would be intolerable 
both from the standpoint of the railroads, and also from that of nav- 
igation. 

Other objections are the lowering of Lake Erie 1.18 feet at mean 
stage which the direct diversion proposed would cause, and the pro- 
duction of excessive currents in the present Black Rock Canal. The 
first of these conditions could be remedied by costly remedial works ; 
the second by an expensive enlargement of the Black Rock Canal. 

As far as navigation is concerned, therefore, this proposition is 
not believed to be worthy of further consideration. From the stand- 
point of sanitation it is treated in section (b), and as a power de- 
velopment enterprise it is dealt with at considerable length in Sec- 
tion F. 

8. OTHER PROPOSED NAVIGATION CANALS, LAKE ERIE TO LAKE ONTARIO. 

Aside from the new Welland Ship Canal, now partially con- 
structed, and the proposed Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal, the 
proposed routes of navigation canals connecting Lakes Erie and 
Ontario have contemplated using portions of the Niagara River. 

Attention is directed to Plate No. 6, which is a map showing 
Niagara River in its relation to the Welland Canal and to various 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 149 

proposed canals, including that of the Erie and Ontario Sanitary 
Canal Co.; and also to Plate No. 11, which gives profiles of the 
Niagara River. 

Before proceeding to consider the various proposed canals, a 
brief description of Niagara River and the surrounding terrain will 
be given. 

Description of Niagara River. — The country traversed by the 
Niagara River lies in two plains; separated by a steep bluff called 
the Niagara escarpment. The upper plain has an undulating sur- 
face with a general elevation of 600 feet above sea level. The lower 
or Lake Ontario plain is comparatively smooth except where streams 
have washed out narrow valleys. From its southern edge, which 
has an elevation of 380 to 400 feet above sea level, it slopes north- 
ward to an elevation of about 260 feet at the lake shore, with low 
bluffs 10 to 30 feet high. A contour map compiled from United 
States Geological surveys and other sources is published in House 
Document No. 149, Fifty-sixth Congress, second session. (Report of 
the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, Plate No. 92.) 

The Niagara River forms the natural outlet of Lake Erie at Buf- 
falo, discharging the surplus waters into Lake Ontario at Youngs- 
town, N. Y. It is 37 miles long by the channel on the American 
side of Grand Island, and 33 miles long by the channel on the 
Canadian side of Grand Island. The total fall in water surface 
from lake to lake averaged 326.35 feet for the years 1860 to 1917, 
both inclusive. Of this total fall about 162 feet is the sheer drop 
of Horseshoe Falls. The discharge of the river varies from about 
110,000 to 400,000 cubic feet per second, depending on the stage of 
Lake Erie. At the average stage for the years 1860 to 1917, inclu- 
sive, namely, 572.53, the discharge is 208,000 cubic feet per second. 
The increment of discharge per foot rise of lake, near mean stage, 
is 22,000 cubic feet per second. 

Leaving Lake Erie the river flows over a limestone ledge in a 
stream about 1,600 feet wide and of 15 feet maximum depth at its 
most restricted section. At this point the velocity approximates 8 
miles per hour. In a distance of 3| miles from the head of the 
river to the foot of Squaw Island the fall in water surface is ap- 
proximately 5.1 feet, varying somewhat with the stage of Lake Erie. 
This section of the river acts as a control on the discharge of the 
river, and is equivalent in its hydraulic effect to a submerged weir. 
Changes in water surface elevation at the foot of Squaw Island have 
about seven-tenths as much effect on the discharge as equal changes 
on Lake Erie have. That is, a rise of one-tenth foot in Lake Erie 
produces an increase in discharge of 2,200 cubic feet per second, 
causing at the same time a rise of 0.082 foot at foot of Squaw Island ; 
while a lowering of 0.1 foot at foot of Squaw Island, Lake Erie ele- 
vation meanwhile remaining unchanged, would produce only 1,560 
cubic feet per second increased flow. The latter condition is possible 
when the river regimen has been disturbed artificially. The Inter- 
national Bridge, a single track structure belonging to the Grand 
Trunk Railroad, crosses the river at Squaw Island and has eight 
river piers. 

About three-quarters of a mile below Squaw Island the river is 
divided by Strawberry Island, and farther down by Grand Island. 
The channel east of Grand Island is known as the American or 



150 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Tonawanda Channel, while that west of Grand Island is called the 
Canadian or Chippawa Channel. From the point of division it is 
12 miles by the Canadian and 16 miles by the American channel to 
the point of reuniting below Navy Island, about a mile above Wel- 
land River. From Squaw Island to Welland River the fall is 4.8 
feet. The Chippawa Channel averages between one-half and three- 
fourths mile wide, and approximately 18 feet deep. The Tonawanda 
Channel for the first 7 miles is about one-third mile wide and 25 
feet deep, and for the remainder of the way is about three-fourths 
mile wide and 10 feet deep. The current averages about 2 to 2J feet 
per second in these two channels. The International boundary line 
follows the Chippawa Channel, close to Grand Island. 

From 1 mile above to 1 mile below Welland River the Niagara 
River is roughly a mile wide, and averages 8 to 10 feet deep. This 
reach is known as the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool. Its average 
elevation is about 563 feet. It discharges over a natural rock barrier 
in a waterfall averaging 5 to 10 feet in height, and known as the first 
cascade. Hydraulically, the rock barrier is equivalent to a weir, and 
the first cascade is a free overfall. Diversions of water below the 
first cascade can have no effect on the river above the cascade, as for 
example the diversions on the Canadian side by the Toronto Power 
Co., Canadian Niagara Power Co., International Railway Co., and 
City Waterworks of Niagara Falls, Ontario. Diversions from 
Chippawa-Grass Island Pool are made on the United States side by 
the plants of the Niagara Falls Power Co. and Hydraulic Power Co., 
while on the Canadian side the diversion of the Ontario Power Co. 
is made from the lip of this pool. 

The first cascade forms the upper portion of a series of cascades 
and rapids extending to the brink of the falls. This reach of river 
is about half a mile long and is divided longitudinally by Goat Island 
into the Canadian and American Rapids, the former being wide and 
the latter narrow. The drop from Welland River to brink of Horse- 
shoe Falls is about 55 feet, while to the American Falls it is only 50 
feet. Horseshoe Falls and American Falls are separated by Goat 
Island. The former is 3,000 feet long and 162 feet high ; the latter is 
1,000 feet long and 167 feet high. 

From the foot of the falls the river flows in a gorge whose banks 
are 180 to 250 feet high for 6J miles to Lewiston. At the latter 
locality the ground falls away very abruptly from an elevation of 
about 600 feet to an elevation of approximately 350 feet. From the 
foot of the falls for about 2 miles the river is roughly 800 feet wide 
at the water surface, and 100 to 192 feet or more deep. Its velocity 
is moderate, its surface generally smooth, and its drop in water sur- 
face from upper to lower end of the reach approximately 5 feet at 
mean stage. This reach is variously known as the Upper Gorge 
Pool, Pool Below the Falls, Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, etc. In this 
report it will be designated the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool. All of the 
present water-power developments discharge into the upstream half 
of this pool, whose average elevation is about ^343 feet. A highway 
bridge known as the Upper Steel Arch Bridge spans the pool about 
1,000 feet downstream from the American Falls. 

Below the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool the next mile of the river is a 
wild, turbulent rapids called the Whirlpool Rapids, which dis- 



1 
1 
i 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 151 

charges into the Whirlpool. The water surface drops 48 feet from 
upper to lower pool. The average width at water surface in the 
rapids is 400 feet, and the average depth is roughly 30 feet. At the 
narrowest section the width is 320 feet and the mean depth 32 feet, 
while at the shallowest section the width is 410 feet and the mean 
depth IT feet. The mean velocity is roughly 25 feet per second, the 
maximum velocity exceeding 38 feet per second. The upper end of 
the Whirlpool Rapids is crossed by two double track railway bridges, 
one known as the Michigan Central Cantilever Bridge, and the other 
the Grand Trunk Steel Arch Bridge. The latter is a double deck 
structure carrying a highway under the railroad tracks. 

The Whirlpool is 1500 feet long, 1200 feet wide, and, according to 
the soundings of Dr. J. W. Spencer, 24 to 126 feet deep. Its average 
elevation is 292 feet. The level of the Whirlpool fluctuates through 
a greater range of stage than the level of any of the other pools, 
and the water surface is more disturbed. 

The Lower Rapids extend from the Whirlpool, 3J miles to Lewis- 
ton. The total water surface drop in this distance is 46 feet. The 
rapids vary in width from 310 to 900 feet, and in depth from 40 to 
at least 150 feet. The slope is not as uniform as in the whirlpool, 
consisting in several steep pitches connected by sections of consider- 
ably less slope. About three-fourths mile below the Whirlpool is the 
beginning of the narrowest section, which extends downstream nearly 
half a mile. This portion of the rapids is abreast of a low lying 
piece of ground in the gorge on the Canadian side known as Niagara 
Glen or Foster Flats, and is sometimes called Foster Flats Rapids. 
It has a steep slope. At the lower end of the Lower Rapids there 
is a suspension bridge known as the Lewiston-Queenston Bridge. 

From the suspension bridge to Lake Ontario is 7-J miles, and the 
water surface drop is approximately one-half foot. This portion of 
the river is roughly one-half to one-third mile wide and 30 to 60 
feet deep. The current is moderate. The banks are 50 to 100 feet 
high, becoming lower near the mouth of the river. 

The general direction of the river is from south to north, although 
the portion above the I" alls, frequently known as the Upper River, 
trends more nearly northwest, while the portion below the Falls, the 
Lower River, flows in general almost exactly north. Just above the 
falls the river is flowing almost due west and at the foot of the falls it 
turns more than a right angle, flowing a little east of north. The 
Canadian Falls is south of the American Falls. Another sharp 
right angled bend in the river occurs at the Whirlpool, where the 
direction of flow changes from northwest to northeast. 

The Niagara River is navigable for boats of considerable size from 
Lake Erie to the Welland River and to docks behind Conners Is- 
land. It is navigable also from Lewiston and Queenston to Lake 
Ontario. In the 3Iaid-of-the-Mist Pool two small steamers operate 
in summer time, carrying sightseers up close to the foot of the falls, 
but these boats do not attempt to navigate the rapids below. 

The Niagara Route. — The Niagara River route, including a port- 
age around the Falls and rapids, had been one of the main thorough- 
fares of the Indians from time immemorial, when, in the seventeenth 
century, it was discovered by the French explorers of the great natural 
inland waterway of the Great Lakes system. As early as 1678 the 



152 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

French had a post which commanded the portage. The frontier 
passed into the control of the British in 1759. By both nations it 
was considered of vast importance because of this route between east 
and west, and its early growth was due to this fact. Toward the 
end of the eighteenth century, when the era of American canal 
building began, the idea of a canal to replace the portage was sug- 
gested several times, and it appears that a survey for a canal was 
made in 1784. In 1798 a company was incorporated to build such a 
canal, but nothing further was accomplished. Since that date but 
few years have passed without agitation for the construction of such 
a canal, and many surveys and estimates have been made. 

Examinations and surveys ordered by Congress have been heretofore made and 
reports thereon published, as follows: 



Niagara Ship Canal. 


Congressional Documents. 


Annual reports 
of Engineers. 


Recommen- 


Year. 


House or 
Senate. 


No. 


Con- 
gress. 


Session. 


Year. 


Pages. 


dation. 


Five routes: depth, 10- 
feet; locks, 200 by 50 
feet. 

Urging need for 


1836 

1837 
1864 

1868 

1889 

1892 

1896 

1897 

1897 

1900 


House... 

...do 

...do 

H. Ex.. 


214 

201 
61 

197 


24th... 

24th... 
38th... 

40th... 


First 






Favorable . 


Second . . 






Do. 


Five routes, depth 12 

feet ; locks, 275 by 45 feet . 

Six routes; depth, 14 feet; 

locks, 275 by 46 feet- 
Two routes; depth, 20£ 
feet; locks 400 by 60 feet. 
Presentation favorable to 


First 






None. 


Second. . 


1868 
1889 


271-287 
2434 


Do. 
Favorable. 


House... 
...do.... 
...do.... 
...do.... 
...do.... 


1023 

423 

192 

86 

149 


52d.... 

54th 

54th... 

55th... 

56th... 


First 


Do. 


above. 


...do 






Do. 


a canal. 

General preliminary ex- 
amination and data. 

Four routes; depth 24 
feet; locks 530 by 60feet. 








Do. 


First.... 


1897 


3128-3237 


Unfavorable. 
Favorable. 


and Tonawanda-Olcott 
route; depth, 21 feet; 
locks, 600 by 60 feet; 
depth, 30 feet; locks, 
740 by 80 feet. 











Surveys made under other auspices are enumerated as follows: 

1784. First survey made for a canal around the Falls of Niagara ; 
by private interests. 

1798. Company chartered by the State of New York to construct 
a canal around Niagara Falls, capable of passing boats of 80 tons 
burden, said canal to be completed 10 years thereafter. 

1808. Survey by James Geddes, under direction of surveyor gen- 
eral of the State of New York of route for a canal around the falls 
from Schlosser's to Lewiston. 

1808. Secretary of the Treasury, under United States. Senate reso- 
lution submitted report of Niagara Ship Canal, Schlossers to Lewis- 
ton, via The Devils Hole. 

1826. Survey by private individuals, with a view to obtaining a 
charter from the State of New York. 

1853. Under charter granted by the State of New York, survey 
made by Charles B. Stuart and Edward W. Serrell for a canal be- 
tween Tonawanda Creek and Lake Ontario. Proposed dimensions 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 153 

i 

of canal, 1T0 feet wide at top, 130 feet on the bottom and 14 feet 
depth of water, with locks 300 feet long and TO feet wide in the 
chamber; estimated cost, shortest line, 8 miles long, with single 
locks, $10,290,471.59 ; with double locks, $13,169,569.69. 

Plans of the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Water- 
ways. — All previous preliminary examinations and survej^s are re- 
garded as superseded by the elaborate surveys made by the United 
State Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, whose report, in two 
large volumes and a portfolio of plates, is that noted on the above 
tabulation as of 1900, House Doc. 149, 56th Cong., 2d sess. This 
is the most recent and also the most elaborate and complete survey 
and estimate. In the course of the present investigation a careful 
reconnaissance was made of both routes between Lake Erie and Lake 
Ontario, which were surveyed by the board and revision surveys of 
the La Salle-Lewiston route were made in sufficient detail to bring 
the information up to date. The Board of Engineers on Deep 
Waterways was appointed in 1897, "to make surveys and examina- 
tions (including estimate of cost) of deep waterways and the routes 
thereof between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic tide waters." The 
members were Maj. Charles W. Raymond, Corps of Engineers, 
United States Army, Alfred Noble, and George Y. Wisner. The 
work of the board was very extensive and of a very high grade. 
Under its direction nearly 500 square miles of topographic and hy- 
drographic surveys were made, several hundred rock soundings 
taken, many miles of precise levels run, and many hydraulic measure- 
ments obtained. It also made extensive studies of traffic conditions, 
size of ships, speed of ships in canals, water supply to summit levels, 
and similar subjects. 

The board investigated two routes between Lake Erie and Lake 
Ontario. One left the Niagara River at Tonawanda and entered 
Lake Ontario at Olcott, about 18 miles east of the mouth of the 
Niagara River. The other left the river at La Salle and entered the 
lower river at Le wist on, about six miles above its mouth. The 
board recommended the La Salle-Lewiston route as offering the most 
assistance to navigation and being also the cheapest. 

The length of the proposed LaSalle-Lewiston canal is 9.16 miles. 
The vertical drop is 318.8 feet which is to be overcome by eight locks, 
arranged in one double flight of six and one double flight of two. Two 
sets of plans and estimates were made, one for a 21-foot channel and 
the other for a 30-foot channel. The principal dimensions of the 
two plans are as follows : 





21-foot channel. 


30-foot channel. 


Width of dredged channel in river 


600 feet... 


600 feet 


Width of canal (bottom in rock section) 


240 feet 


250 feet 




600 feet 


740 fppf 


Width of locks 


60 feet 


One <;pt fiO fppf 


Lift of locks, upper flight (each) 


40 feet 


one set 80 feet. 

40 fppt 


Lift of locks, lower flight (each) 


39. 4 feet 


39 4 fppt 


Estimated cost 


$38,611,723 


$66,831,857. 





These costs include a lock at Black Rock which has since been built. 
They also include the cost of regulating works at the head of the 



154 diveksiost or water from great lakes and Niagara river. 

river. The amount of water required to be diverted from Niagara 
River was not stated, but it probably was less than 1,000 cubic feet 
per second. The report is very exhaustive and represents the latest 
ideas as to what an Erie- Ontario Canal should be, except that the 
great size of ships now- in use would require that the locks be made 
larger than recommended. The estimates of cost are, of course, quite 
obsolete because of the recent rise in prices. 

The improvements to the Black Rock Canal, made since the report 
of the Deep Waterways Board, including construction of the new 
lock at Black Rock, have been described previously. Downstream 
from the lock the Niagara River has been improved for a distance of 
2^ miles to provide a channel 400 feet wide and 21 feet deep at low 
water datum, extending to deep water in the Tonawanda Channel, 
from which point the natural channel is of ample width and depth 
for 5 miles, or nearly to the head of the Tonawanda-Olcott route. 
Further authorized improvement will extend the 21 foot channel 
downstream 1J miles to the Tonawanda Iron & Steel Co, dock. The 
river thence to the head of the LaSalle-Lewiston route, 3f miles, has 
been improved to provide a channel 200 feet wide, and 10 feet deep 
at low water datum. Scattered bowlders moved into the channel by 
ice have reduced the available depth to about 8 feet. 

Further details of the work, plans, and estimates of the Deep 
Waterways Board are given in the following quotations from its 
report : 

A careful reconnaissance made by the board in advance of the field work 
showed that only two of the routes from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario were worthy 
of investigation, viz : The route from the Niagara River at Tonawanda to Lake 
Ontario at Olcott, and from the river at LaSalle to Lewiston and thence through 
the Niagara River to the lake. 

These were thoroughly investigated relative to volume and kind of material 
to be excavated, nature and dimensions of structures which will be needed, and 
character of foundation on which such structures will have to be erected. 

The difficulties to be overcome on the two routes are practically the same and 
the real comparative merits of the waterways depend largely upon relative cost 
to construct and maintain them and the difference in time required by a type 
steamship to traverse the respective routes between points common to each. 
* * * 

The question has been raised as to the advisability of constructing locks, 
which will cost several million dollars, as close to the boundary between the 
United States and Canada as will be the case at the Lewiston escarpment ; but 
when we consider the important lock and regulating structures which will be 
needed at the head of Niagara River, the deep channels already excavated in 
Canadian waters at the mouth of the Detroit River, and the locks and canals 
at Sault Ste. Marie, it is difficult to conceive, if the Lewiston location is objec- 
tionable for military reasons, why similar reasons should not have prevented 
the improvement of the entire upper lake system of waterways. * * * 

In the very improbable event of a war with Great Britain, every large ship 
of war possessed by this country would be required on the high sea. Such 
vessels would be unnecessary on the lakes, since the greatest depth of the 
Canadian waterways is only 14 feet. 

The survey of the Niagara Ship Canal was commenced in September, 1897, 
and, including borings, was completed in April, 1898. The work consisted in 
developing two routes from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, one from Buffalo, via 
the Niagara River to Tonawanda, and thence by ship canal to Olcott, on Lake 
Ontario, and the other by the Niagara River to La Saile, near the lower end of 
Grand Island, and thence by ship canal to the Niagara River at Lewiston, from 
which place there is a good natural channel to Lake Ontario. 

The topography of the country was determined with sufficient accuracy to 
develop contours of 2-foot intervals on the field maps, and borings were put 
down at such points as necessary to establish the profile of the rock surface 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 155 

where above canal grade, along the line of the proposed waterway as finally 
located on the field maps. Fourteen diamond drill borings were afterwards 
put down along the location for these two lines to ascertain the character of 
material to be excavated, and the nature of foundations on which structures are 
to be founded. 

Particular examination was made of the escarpment extending from above 
Lewiston to Lockport, with an average elevation of about 620 feet above mean 
tide at New York. A little west of Lockport a narrow ravine, known as the 
"Gulf" cuts through the escarpment, which has been generally regarded as 
the best location for locking down to the lower plateau. 

Comparative estimates, based on accurate surveys, indicate that a better 
line can be located west of the "Gulf" in which the waterway can be con- 
structed at less cost. 

From the foot of the escarpment at Lockport the plateau, consisting of red 
shale, gradually falls toward Lake Ontario. 

The top of the escarpment above Lewiston has practically the same elevation 
as at Lockport, but has a steeper incline toward Lake Ontario than the latter. 
The construction of a waterway by either route will involve the construction of 
locks having high lifts. 

On the Lewiston route the Niagara River constitutes a first-class natural 
harbor for the Lake Ontario terminal, whereas for all the other routes artificial 
harbors will have to be constructed. 

The La Salle-Lewiston route has fewer important railroad crossings than the 
Olcott route, and does not interfere with manufacturing and private enterprises 
to the extent that the latter does in the vicinity of Tonawanda. 

From an engineering and financial point of view, and from the less danger of 
delays and accidents to navigation in the comparatively short reach of restricted 
waterway on the Lewiston line, it appears to be the preferable location on which 
to construct a ship canal. 

The Tonmvanda-Olcott route. — This route leaves the Niagara River at the 
head of Tonawanda Island, with an elevation of 565 feet above tide water at 
New York for low stage of the river, and continues at that level 13.2 miles to 
the head of the escarpment west of Lockport, where the ridge to be cut through 
has an elevation of 636 feet above tide water, or 71 feet above the water surface 
in the canal. From the top of the escarpment the line descends to Lake Ontario, 
11.2 miles, with 2 single and 3 double locks of 40 feet lift each, one single lock 
with 30.5 feet lift, and 3 double locks each with 30 feet lift. 

At a distance about 1 mile above Lake Ontario the line enters the gorge of 
Eighteen-mile Creek and follows it to the lake. 

The proposed harbor at Olcott consists in widening Eighteen-mile Creek to 
the width of 400 feet from the last lock of the canal to the lake, and protecting 
the entrance by breakwaters, as shown on the maps. The lake in front of the 
canal entrance is shallow, with a shale rock bottom, which will have to be 
excavated for a width of 600 feet and for the required depth. 

Between Niagara River and the escarpment at Lockport the rock, where 
above bottom grade of the waterway, is either limestone or Niagara shale, 
overlaid with silt, sand, gravel, clay, or hardpan. 

From the head of the escarpment north, the excavation will be through 
limestone, sandstone and shale, and near Lake Ontario through soft red shale, 
overlaid with sand, gravel, clay, or hardpan. 

La Falle-LeirAston Route. — This route starts in Niagara River at the same 
point as the Tonawanda-Olcott route, continues down the river to the head 
)f Cayuga Island, and thence on a tangent (canal) with a low-water level of 
563.5 feet to the escarpment above Lewiston. From the top of the escarpment 
the route passes down the bluff to the Niagara about one-half mile below Lewis- 
ton, with six double locks of 40 feet lift each and two double locks of 39.4 feet 
lift each. The fall of the river from the foot of Lock No. 9 to Lake Ontario (6 
miles) is about 0.2 feet. 

The elevation of the top of the ridge above Lewiston at the point of maxi- 
mum cuttting is 620 feet above tide water or 56.5 feet above the proposed low- 
water surface of the canal; and for a distance of 6 miles the prism of the 
waterway is entirely in rock. 

From Tonawanda to La Salle, about 4 miles, rock composed of Salina shales 
is from 10 to 20 feet below river level, and from La Salle to the escarpment 
above Lewiston (7.5 miles) the excavation will be in Niagara limestone over- 
laid with clay, sand, and gravel. 



156 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

The excavation for the six double locks clown the escarpment about three- 
fourths mile will be through limestone, sandstone, and shales, and from the 
foot of this flight to Niagara River, shales covered with sand, gravel, clay, and 
bowlders. 

From the lower end of the canal to Lake Ontario (6 miles) the river is from 
50 feet to 60 feet deep and forms one of the finest harbors on the lakes. The 
bar in Lake Ontario outside of the entrance to the river has a depth on its crest 
of 24 feet at standard low water, and is composed of sand and gravel. 

Prism dimensions. — From a careful study of the dimensions of the St. Clair 
Flats Canal, the Suez Canal, the Manchester Canal, the Amsterdam Canal, 
the Kiel Canala, and the speed which steamships can maintain in these respec- 
tive waterways, it is the opinion of the board that the cross section of the 
canal prism should be made such that a speed of 8 miles per hour can be main- 
tained on tangents without danger to passing ships or damage to the canal 
banks. 

Referring to the discussion of the speed of ships in the proposed deep water- 
way, in Appendix No. 4, it will be noted that for the type of vessels best 
adapted for the economical transportation of the lake traffic the cross section 
of canal prism necessary to permit a speed of 8 miles per hour is about 5,500 
square feet for a 21-foot waterway and 8,000 square feet for a 30-foot 
waterway. 1 

The dimensions of lock structures which will best subserve the traffic of the 
waterway and the design of the lock gates best adapted for operating the locks 
have been investigated under the direction of the board by specialists in such 
construction, the results of which are fully discussed in Appendix Nos. 1 and 2. 

The single locks, which have been designed for a 30-foot waterway, are to be 
740 feet long, 80 feet wide, and have lifts to conform with the present de- 
velopment of water power on the routes. Where flights of locks are necessary, 
a duplicate set is provided, having a width of 60 feet. For a 21-foot waterway 
the locks, whether single or double, are to be 600 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 
have lifts the same as in the 30-foot waterway. Consideration has been given 
to the advisability of making the locks of the 21-foot waterway 80 feet wide, for 
the purpose of floating large ships, light, from the lake shipyards to the sea- 
board. 

Proposed ship canal. — In this report the matter of a ship canal 
between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario is treated at considerable length 
for two reasons: First, to comply with instructions contained in 
department letters dated August 4, 1916, E. D. 42608, September 29, 
1916, E. D. 101152, and April 28, 1917, E. D. 106256, which cover the 
preliminary examination on " Waterway or ship channel along the 
most practicable route between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario of suffi- 
cient capacity to admit the largest vessels now in use on the Great 
Lakes," ordered by Congress in the river and harbor act of July 27, 
1916, which examination and report were held by the department to 
be superseded by and included in the investigation reported herein ; 
and second, to comply with department instructions that such a 
canal should be treated in the present report with special reference 
to the practicability and advisability of making it a combined power 
and ship canal. 

A summary of the estimates prepared is given in section (f) of 
this report, where the project is described in considerable detail in 
connection with other projects for the development of water power 
at Niagara Falls. For a ship canal without power development the 
estimated costs are as follows : 

. C; 

*The figures show, for 21-foot channel: Rock section, bottom width 240 feet. Sides 
slopes, 10 on 1, area 5,040 square feet. Earth section, bottom width 215 feet. Side 
slopes, 1 on 2, area 5,497 square feet. - ' 1 

For 30-foot channel: Rock section, bottom width 250 feet. Side slopes, 10 on 1, 
area 7,500 square feet. Earth section, bottom width 203 feet. Side slopes 1 on 2 ; area 
7,990 square feet. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 157 



Prism. 


Locks. 


Cost. 


200 feet wide, 25 feet deep 


650 feet long, 70 feet wide, 25 feet deep 

800 feet long, 80 feet wide, 30 feet deep 

800 feet long, 80 feet wide, 30 feet deep 


$120,000,000 




135,000,000 


300 feet wide 30 feet deep 


155,652,000 







It is important to note that the new Welland ship canal, only a few 
miles distant, which is now partially completed, and which no doubt 
Trill be opened to navigation long* before a canal in the United States 
could be constructed, will be able to care for all the traffic likely to 
exist between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario for many years to come, 
and that accordingly there is no necessity for an additional canal. 
Moreover it should be borne in mind that communication between 
Lake Ontario and the seaboard is still limited by the St. Lawrence 
canals and shallows in the St. Lawrence River described previously. 

The present commerce through the Welland Canal has been stated, 
and also that through the St. Marys River. A comparison shows 
how very small a part of the Great Lakes commerce now uses 
the Welland route. The extensive lake freight commerce between 
the terminal harbors on Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron to 
harbors on Lake Erie amounts, so far as determinable from the com- 
mercial statistics and vessel passages through the St. Marys Falls 
canals and Detroit River, to at least 95 per cent of the total, which 
aggregated over 100,000,000 .short tons in 1916, leaving not over 5 per 
cent for the Welland Canal-Lake Ontario commerce. The latter 
commerce is represented in Table No. 10, compiled from the report 
of the Department of Railways and Canals, Canada, for the season 
of 1914: 

Table No. 10. — Freight moved through Welland Canal, 191^. 

Tons. 

Agricultural products 2, 116, 378 

Forest products 360, 434 

Coal 949, 306 

Miscellaneous 484, 851 

3, 860, 969 
Through freight eastward 2.936,740 

Carried by Canadian vessels 2,936,740 

East and west to United States ports 509, 079 

Carried by United States vessels 7SS. 359 

As shown by the above tabulation, the freight movement is prin- 
cipally through freight eastward. It consists largely of grain from 
upper Lake ports, notably Fort William, in Canada, on Lake Su- 
perior, and from Milwaukee and Chicago, shipped for transfer to sea- 
going vessels at Montreal. The coal shipment is from United States 
ports on Lake Erie to Canada. The " forest-products " shipment is 
lumber from upper Lake United States and Canadian lumber ports 
to Lake Ontario and St. Lawrence River United States and Canadian 
ports, and pulp wood and wood pulp from upper Lake ports to 
United States ports on Lake Ontario and from the lower St. Lawrence 
River and Saguenay River ports to United States ports on Lake 
Erie. The latter and general merchandise constitute the principal 
freight movement westward through the Welland Canal ; but it is 
not extensive, and is necessarily carried on by Lake vessels of not 
over 14-foot draft navigating ' the St. Lawrence River Canals as 
well as the Welland. 



158 DIVEKSIOl^ OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

It will be noted that the amount of freight " east and west to 
United States ports" is small — about 500,000 tons. About one- 
quarter of this is grain and lumber eastward to Ogdensburg, N. Y., 
except about one-twentieth to Oswego, N. Y., and the other three- 
quarters is the pulp wood above mentioned and general merchandise 
(railroad freight) from Ogdensburg westward to Chicago and Mil- 
waukee. The railroad freight movement (70,000 to 100,000 tons) 
was, however, discontinued in 1915 on the abolishment of the Eut- 
land Railroad line of freight vessels. 

There is no passenger service through the Welland Canal, and the 
number of yachts and motor boats traversing it is small. The United 
States lighthouse tender for the tenth district and the United States 
engineer inspection vessel, Buffalo district, use the canal for several 
trips per year to and from Lake Ontario. 

To summarize, the present commerce between Lakes Erie and On- 
tario may be fairly regarded as not exceeding 4,000,000 freight tons 
per annum, of which not over 10 per cent is United States commerce, 
coastwise or foreign. 

A waterway or channel to admit the largest vessels now in use on 
the Great Lakes involves the dimension of depth or draft, as well 
as of length and breadth over all. The question of draft involves 
vessels about as represented in the existing lake fleet whose possible 
load- draft is greater than 21 feet. The percentage of such vessels in 
the lake fleet of about TOO large vessels, length 200 to 600 feet, may 
be fairly approximated as follows : 

Load draft 20 to 21 feet, 10 per cent. 

Load draft 21 to 22 feet, 25 per cent. 

Load, draft 23 feet, 11 per cent. 

Load draft 24 feet, 12 per cent. 

These percentages are derived from molded depth of vessels as 
given in the official register of vessels, on the assumption that for 
vessels of the general lake type, the molded depth is practically 
equivalent to the sum of the draft and freeboard. There appear 
to be no regulations governing the amount of freeboard required on 
vessels on the Great Lakes, but considering the amount required 
on ocean-going vessels and the freeboard of known lake vessels, it 
has been assumed that such vessels with a molded depth of 28 feet 
or less should have 6 feet of freeboard, those from 28 to 31 should 
have 7 feet, and those greater than 31 should have 8 feet. The largest 
vessel as to draft is therefore taken to be as of a possible 24-foot 
draft. 

It is to be noted, however, that owing to existing conditions of 
channels and basins on the Great Lakes, freight tonnage is actually 
carried in vessels as indicated by the classification of vessels passing 
through the St. Marys Falls Canals, about as follows : 

Percentage of 
Vessels, net registered tonnage : tne freight- 
Under 1,000 1 

1,000 to 2,000 c 6 

2,000 to 3,000 9 

3,000 to 4,000 28 

4,000 to 5,000 27 

5,000 to 6,000 25 

6,000 and over. 4 

100 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 159 

The draft of vessels of 2,000 tons and over, carrying 84 per cent 
of the freight was 18 to 21 feet, and those vessels are comprised in 
the class of vessels that can be loaded to deeper draft as noted in 
the table above. They carry nearly all of the bulk freight, while 
the remainder thereof and the merchandise freight is carried in 
package freighters and smaller vessels whose draft can not be eco- 
nomically increased. 

The question of length and breadth over all is taken as that of the 
largest lake freight vessel, viz, length 625 feet and breadth 64.2 feet, 
which excludes only a few side-wheel passenger steamers of breadth 
up to the maximum of 100 feet over guards. Of a total of 150 ves- 
sels over 500 feet long and over 50 feet beam over all, there were, in 
1916, 34 vessels 600 to 625 feet in length and 58 to 64.2 feet in 
breadth. 

For further treatment of the LaSalle-Lewiston Ship Canal, and 
consideration of correlative power development, reference is made 
to section (f ) of this report. 

9. PROPOSED CANALS, LAKE ONTARIO TO HUDSON RIVER. 

Four water routes from Lake Ontario to the sea have in the past 
received consideration. One of these is the natural route by way of 
the St. Lawrence River. The other three are by way of the Hudson 
River, which is reached in one case by way of the St. Lawrence to 
Lake St. Louis, artifical canal from there to Richelieu River, up 
Richelieu River to Lake Champlain, and on to the Hudson by Lake 
Champlain and an artificial canal; in another case by the St. Law- 
rence to Lake St. Francis, then by artificial canal to Lake Champlain, 
and on to the Hudson as before ; and in the third case by way of the 
Oswego, Oneida and Mohawk Rivers. Only the last route lies en- 
tirely in United States territory. All four routes are described in 
the report of the United States Deep Waterways Commission pub- 
lished in 1897 as House of Representatives Document No. 192 (54th 
Cong., 2d sess.) and are shown in plate 2 of that report which is here 
reproduced on plate No. 12. 

The route from the ocean to Lake Ontario by way of the Hudson 
River, Mohawk River, Oneida Lake, and Oswego River is one of the 
early water routes that has been used since the first settlements. It 
formed the usual connection between New York and the Lakes before 
the land route by way of Rochester and Buffalo was developed. A 
proposal to improve it by locks at Little Falls was made by the 
royal Governor of New York in 1768. In 1791 the first surveys for 
improving this route were made and some work was done on the 
eastern part during the following years. During the construction 
of the Erie Canal there was much agitation in favor of connecting it 
with Lake Ontario by means of the Oswego River. This was finally 
successful, and in 1829 the " Oswego Canal " was opened. Since that 
time it has formed part of the New York State canal system. 

The Deep Waterways Board considered two routes from Lake On- 
tario to the sea, one by way of the St. Lawrence River to Lake St. 
Francis, Lake St. Francis to Lake Champlain by artificial canal, and 
on down Lake Champlain and the Hudson River; the other by the 
Oswego, the Mohawk and the Hudson Rivers. It recommended the 
latter as the more desirable. The length of this route from Lake 



160 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GEEAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Ontario at Oswego to the Hudson River at the mouth of Normans 
Kill is 172.9 miles. The line starts 1-J miles west of the mouth of the 
Oswego River and runs south about 6 miles to lock No. 4, where it 
enters the river. It follows the river 5 miles to lock No. 5, and then 
goes across the divide 15 miles to Oneida Lake. After traversing 
the length of the lake, 21 miles, it follows the line of Wood Creek to 
Rome, a distance of 13 miles. Thence it continues 89 miles down 
the Mohawk River to a point just above Schenectady, where the line 
leaves the Mohawk and cuts across the divide, a distance of 11 miles 
to Normans Kill and follows the kill for 13 miles to the Hudson 
River. The standard sections in rock are 240 feet wide for the 21-foot 
channel and 250 feet for the 30-foot. The standard earth section has 
side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical, with berms 10 feet wide 
situated 5 feet above and 5 feet below the water surface. There is 
slope paving between the berms. The bottom width is 215 feet for 
the 21-foot channel and 203 feet for the 30-foot. In Oneida Lake 
the width is 600 feet and in the Mohawk River below Herkimer it 
varies from 203 to 460 feet. 

There are 29 locks, the lift of each varying from 3 to 42.8 feet at 
low water. The total lockage is 512.6 feet. Fourteen of these locks 
are arranged in five flights of 2, 2, 2, 3, and 5 locks, respectively. 
These locks are all double, the others are single. For the 21-foot 
channel all locks are 600 feet long and 60 feet wide. For the 30-foot 
channel they are 740 feet long, the width being 80 feet for single 
locks, and 80 feet and 60 feet, respectively, for the two chambers of 
double locks. 

There is a summit level with a length of 72 miles extending from 
Lock No. 7, west of Brewerton eastward to Lock No. 8, near Frank- 
fort, including Oneida Lake, which is used as a reservoir. Some 
difficulty was encountered in finding a sufficient water supply for 
this summit level, but it was finally obtained by diverting part of 
the Salmon River through a feeder. It was estimated that the sum- 
mit level would require a supply of about 1,100 cubic feet per second, 
of which about two-thirds would be water which would normally 
flow into Lake Ontario. As this water would eventually be divided 
about equally between the canal east and west of the summit, it 
follows that some water would be permanently diverted from the 
Great Lakes drainage. The route through the Mohawk Valley be- 
low Frankfort is of the slack water type, to be maintained by 8 large 
dams. 

These plans were very carefully worked out by the Deep Water- 
ways Board and were based on extensive and carefully executed 
surveys and studies. The building of the New York State Barge 
Canal system along this route has made the construction of this 
ship canal as planned impossible, and has rendered very difficult 
the proposition of providing any ship canal along this route, especi- 
ally in respect to providing an adequate water supply for the sum- 
mit level. 

10. OTHER PRESENT OR PROPOSED CANALS DIVERTING WATER FROM THE 
GREAT LAKES OR THEIR TRIBUTARIES. 

The Fox River Canal. — This is a canal in Wisconsin between the 
Fox River, a tributary of Lake Michigan, and the Wisconsin River, 



! 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 161 

a tributary of the Mississippi. It is 2 miles long and affords a 
passage for boats 137 feet long, 34 feet wide, with a draft of 3 feet. 
The attempt to maintain the Wisconsin as a navigable stream was 
abandoned in 1887, and the traffic through the canal is very small. 
In the improved Fox River there is slack water navigation with a 
draft of 6 feet, except for shoaling, from Green Bay to Montello 
and of 4 feet from there to the canal. The canal is supplied with 
water from the Wisconsin River, which is about 5 feet higher than 
the Fox ; hence there is no diversion of water from the Great Lakes 
system by the canal ; on the contrary, a very small addition of water 
is received from the Mississippi system. The work of improving 
this waterway from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi was under- 
taken in 1846 by the State of Wisconsin, which was assisted by a 
grant from the National Government of 691,200 acres of land lying 
along the route. In 1853 the land and works were sold to an im- 
provement company, and in 1872 the Federal Government assumed 
control of the waterway by purchase. 

The Trent Canal. — This is the name applied to a series of natural 
and artificial waterways from Trenton, Ontario, at the mouth of the 
Trent River, on the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario, to Honey Harbor, 
about 10 miles north of Midland, on Georgian Bay, Lake Huron. 
This chain of lakes and rivers does not, in its present condition, form 
a connected route for navigation, though various parts have a con- 
siderable local use. By works now building this will become a 
through route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron. The route lies in 
the Trent River, Rice Lake, and Otonabee River, and Clear, Stony, 
Lovesick, Deer, Buckhorn, Chemong, Pigeon, Sturgeon, and Cameron 
Lakes to Lake Balsam, which is the summit level, and from Lake 
Balsam by a canal and the Talbot River to Lake Simcoe. From 
Lake Simcoe the route is through Lake Couchiching and down the 
Severn River to Gloucester Pool, leaving Gloucester Pool by the 
Go-Home Lakes and South Honey Harbor and entering Georgian 
Bay at Skylark Rock between the islands of Beausoleil and Minni- 
coganashene. Another passage between Gloucester Pool and Geor- 
gian Bay is provided by a small lock at Port Severn. A branch of 
the main route extends from Sturgeon Lake south along the Scugog 
River to the town of Lindsay, and thence through Lake Scugog to 
Port Perry. The total length of the main route is 245 miles, and of 
the Scugog Branch 30 miles. Another branch along the Holland 
River from Lake Simcoe to Newmarket, a distance of 12 miles, 
formed part of the original plan, but work on it was discontinued in 
1911. There are 46 locks on the main route and one at Lindsay on 
the Scugog branch and a small one at Port Severn. Two of these 
locks are of the very unusual " hydraulic lift " type, the one at Peter- 
borough being noted for its great lift of 65 feet. 

The 18 locks between Lake Ontario and Rice Lake are 175 feet 
long, 33 feet wide (available dimensions 150 by 30 feet) and have a 
depth of 8 feet 4 inches on the sills. The depth in the canal reaches 
is 9 feet. This work is not yet completed and only a portion of the 
route is navigable. From River Lake to Lake Couchiching the limit- 
ing dimensions of the locks are 134 feet by 33 feet (available 110 feet 
by 30 feet) with depths of 6 feet on the sills. This section is open to 
navigation with a limiting depth of 6 feet. The Scugog branch 

27880—21 11 



162 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

also is open to 6-foot navigation. Its lock is 142 by 33 feet. The 
section from Lake Couchiching to Georgian Bay is under construc- 
tion. The locks are said to be " large," probably the same as on the 
Rice Lake division, and have a depth of 8 feet 4 inches on the sills. 
The lock at Port Severn is 100 feet by 25 feet with 6-foot depth. 

The summit level at Balsam Lake has a low-water elevation of 840 
which is 597 feet above Lake Ontario and 262 above Lake Huron. 
Nothing is known about the water supply to this summit level. It 
probably amounts to only a few hundred cubic feet per second. 
Presumably part of this is diverted from the Huron watershed to 
the Ontario or vice cersa, thus decreasing or increasing the flow of the 
St. Clair, Detroit, and Niagara Rivers by a trifling amount. The 
matter is of no practical importance in any study of lake levels or 
allied subjects. 

This canal was begun by the British Government in 1837, but work 
was soon suspended. At various times since then local improvements 
have been made. In 1907 the project from the Bay of Quinte to Rice 
Lake was adopted by the Dominion Government and construction 
was started in the same year. The cost of construction up to March 
31, 1916, was $15,626,295. In 1914 the vessel passages were 3,647 and 
the tons of freight carried were 67,715. In 1915 the figures were 
3,433 and 49,904, respectively. 

The Rideau Canal. — The Rideau Canal or "Rideau navigation" 
connects the Ottawa River at Ottawa, Ontario, with the eastern 
end of Lake Ontario at Kingston, Ontario, by means of a chain of 
rivers, lakes, and canals 126J miles in length. From Ottawa the 
route ascends the Rideau River 63 miles to Rideau Lake, passing 
by a lock at the narrows into Upper Rideau Lake, which forms 
the summit level. It then descends through Mud, Clear, Indian, 
Mosquito, Opinicon, Sand, Whitefish and Cranberry Lakes to the 
Cataraqui River and 29 miles down this river to Kingston. There 
is a branch line 7 miles from Beveridges Bay on Rideau Lake, to 
the town of Perth. From Ottawa to the summit level there are 
33 locks with a total rise of 292J feet. From the summit to Kings- 
ton there are 14 locks with a total fall of 165J feet. The low- 
water elevations are: Ottawa River at Ottawa, 127.4; Summit 
level, Upper Rideau Lake, 408; Lake Ontario at Kingston, 243. 
On the Perth branch there are two locks with a total lift of 26 
feet. The locks are 134 feet long, 33 feet wide, with a depth of 
5 feet on the sills. The canal sections have a navigable depth of 
5 feet. The bottom width is 54 feet in rock and 60 feet in earth. 
The total cost of this canal up to March 31, 1916, was $4,657,668. 
In 1914 the number of vessel passages was 2,635 and the tons of 
freight carried were 151,739. In 1915 the figures were 2,076 pas- 
sages and 120,781 tons. The water supply for this canal comes 
from the Wolf Lake system, the Tag River, and the Mud Lake 
system. It can not exceed a few hundred cubic feet per second 
A certain amount of water is probably diverted from the Lake 
Ontario drainage to the Ottawa or vice, versa. The amount is so 
small that it can have, no practical effect upon the hydraulic prob- 
lems of the St. Lawrence River. 

It is an interesting historical point that this canal was built as 
a military measure. During the War of 1812 the only good com- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 163 

munication between Montreal and Lake Ontario was through the 
St. Lawrence River, and this was often interrupted by the Ameri- 
cans who held the south bank of that river for about 100 miles. 
In 1815 a captain of the Royal Engineers recommended the con- 
struction of a military canal by the Rideau route which would 
avoid this difficulty. Construction was commenced in 1826 and 
finished in 1832. The canal was built by the British, not the 
Canadian Government, under the supervision of the Royal Engi- 
neers, but was turned over to the Dominion in 1856. 

Abandoned New York State canals. — Three small canals in New 
York State formerly had some little effect upon the water supply 
of the Great Lakes. These were the Chenango, Chemung, and 
Genesee Valley Canals. The first connected the Erie Canal at 
Utica with the Susquehanna River at Binghamton with a length 
of 97 miles. The second connected Seneca Lake with the Chemung 
River, a branch of the Susquehanna, at Elmira, with a length of 
23 miles. The third connected the Erie Canal at Rochester with 
the Allegheny River at Olean with a length of 107 miles. The 
canals were all of the same size. Their locks were 90 feet by 15 
feet horizontally, by 4 feet depth; the canal prism was 26 feet 
wide on the bottom, 42 feet on the water surface, and 4 feet deep ; 
they accommodated boats of 75 tons capacity. These canals have 
all been abandoned. Small sections which serve as feeders to the 
present New York State canals have been mentioned previously in 
this report. 

Shenango Canal. — The construction of this canal was authorized 
in 1836 and completed in 1844. The route extended from the city 
of Erie, on Lake Erie, to New Castle, on the Shenango River, where 
it connected with the Beaver Canal, extending to Beaver, Pa., on the 
Ohio River. Its length was 106 miles, of which 96 miles was in 
artificial canal and 10 miles was slack water navigation in an im- 
proved river. The entire route was in Pennsylvania. The canal 
was 30 feet wide on the bottom, 54 feet on the water surface, and 4 
feet deep. It had 112 locks with a total rise and fall of 797J feet. 
The locks were 80 feet by 15 feet, and 4 feet deep. The canal 
afforded navigation for boats of 65 tons cargo capacity. The total 
cost of construction was over $4,000,000. A branch canal to the east 
connected with the Allegheny River, and one to the west with the 
Ohio & Erie Canal. The Shenango Canal was abandoned in 1870. 
As it connected the Ohio Basin with the Great Lakes, it must have 
caused some slight diversion of water one way or the other. 

Ohio di Erie Canal. — This canal runs from Portsmouth, on the 
Ohio River, to Cleveland, on Lake Erie, a distance of 309 miles. 
Construction was commenced in 1825 and finished in 1833. The 
prism is 26 feet wide on the bottom, and 40 feet on the water surface, 
and the depth is 4 feet. There were originally 161 locks, with a total 
rise and fall of a little over 1,200 feet. The locks were 90 feet by 
15 feet, and 4 feet deep. The maximum sized boat which could navi- 
gate the canal was of 90 tons capacity. The cost of construction was 
$4,695,204. The summit level diverted a small amount of water 
from the Tuscarawas River, a tributary of the Ohio, into Lake Erie. 

This canal has been abandoned. 

Miami & Erie Canal. — The Miami & Erie Canal runs from Cin- 
cinnati, on the Ohio River, to Toledo, on Lake Erie, by way of 



164 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Dayton and Defiance. Its length is 244 miles. It was commenced in 
1825 and completed in 1845. The dimensions of locks and prism on 
the three divisions are as follows : 



Division. 



Cincinnati-Dayton 
Dayton-Defiance. . 
Defiance-Toledo. . . 



Width at 
surface. 


Width on 
bottom. 


Depth of 
prism. 


Length 
of lock. 


Width of 
lock. 


40 
50 
60 


26 
36 
46 


4 
5 
6 


87 


15 
15 
15 


90 



Depth 
on sill. 



There are 105 locks, and the total rise and fall is 907 feet. The 
cost of construction was $5,920,200. The water supply for the 
summit level was obtained chiefly from the headwaters of the Miami 
River and a small quantity was probably diverted into the Missis- 
sippi basin. 

This canal has been abandoned. 

It is interesting to note that altogether the Federal Government 
donated to the State of Ohio 1,230,522 acres of land in aid of canal 
construction. 

Proposed Lake Erie <& Ohio River Canal. — This is a proposed barge 
canal connecting the Ohio River at the mouth of the Beaver River with 
Lake Erie either at Indian Creek or Ashtabula. The route lies partly 
in Pennsylvania and partly in Ohio. Surveys for such a canal were 
made in 1889 by the State of Pennsylvania, in 1894 by the Pittsburgh 
Chamber of Commerce, and in 1905 by the Merchants and Manufac- 
turers' Association of Pittsburgh. As a result of this last investiga- 
tion the Lake Erie & Ohio River Ship Canal Co. was organized to 
build and operate the waterway. This company spent $60,000 for 
surveys and studies and reported favorably on the project, but owing 
to the financial panic of 1907, was unable to secure the funds for its 
construction. In 1911 the National Waterways Commission studied 
the project. It reported the project both feasible and desirable and 
recommended that if local interests would build the canal the Fed- 
eral Government should construct the harbor at its Lake Erie end and 
deepen the Ohio River from Beaver River to Pittsburgh. About this 
time the Lake Erie & Ohio River Canal Association was formed for 
the purpose of constructing the canal Avith public funds. These funds 
were to be obtained from the counties bordering on the canal and the 
waterways connecting with it and from the States of Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, and West Virginia and the National Government. The asso- 
ciation obtained from the three States the legislation necessary to 
enable it to proceed. The project was interrupted by the war, and 
it is not known what action, if any, is now proposed. 

The following description of the proposed canal is taken from the 
1917 report of the Lake Erie & Ohio River Canal Board of the State 
of Pennsylvania : 

The route of the canal should be as follows : Beginning at the mouth of the 
Beaver River in the State of Pennsylvania arid running thence in the channel 
of said river 20.7 miles to the junction of the Mahoning and Shenango Rivers ; 
thence in the channel. of the Mahoning River 29.4 miles to Mies, Ohio, with 
only such departures from said river channels as are necessary to eliminate 
unnavigable curves; thence following generally the valley of Mosquito Creek 
about 8.4 miles to a point in Trumbull County, approximately 2.5 miles south- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 165 

west of the village of Cortland, Ohio, which point is the southerly limit of the 
summit level of the proposed canal; thence in a course almost due north across 
said summit level a distance of 27.3 miles to a point about 2 miles east of Rock 
Creek, Ohio, which point is the northern limit of the summit level ; thence by 
the valleys of Grand River and Indian Creek about 15.7 miles to a point at or 
near the mouth of Indian Creek, on Lake Erie, approximately 6£ miles west of 
Ashtabula, making the total length of the route 101^ miles. 

On this route the elevation to be ascended from the mouth of the Beaver 
River to the summit level is 232 feet and the descent from the summit level to 
the lake 327 feet. 

The number of locks required will be 26, with lifts of from 10 to 30 feet. 

The canal should be not less than 12 feet deep, with locks 56 feet in width 
by 400 feet in length, with depth of 12 feet over miter sills. The bottom width 
of the canal should be not less than 140 feet and its surface not less than 188 feet. 

The cost of this canal at prices prevailing in 1914-15 is estimated to be 
$65,000,000 and its capacity 38,000,000 tons per annum. This estimate of cost 
does not include branches to New Castle, Pa., and Warren, Ohio, each of which 
will cost, roughly, $3,500,000. 

The proposed canal connects the two .argest inland waterways in the United 
States and traverses a district through which there is a tonnage movement 
greater than that of any other district of equal area in the world. 

The water supply for the summit level of the proposed canal 
comes from the headwaters of French Creek, Shenango River, and 
Mosquito Creek, tributaries of the Ohio River; and from the head 
waters of Mill Creek and the Ashtabula River, tributaries of Lake 
Erie. The total supply is estimated at 382 cubic feet per second, or 
667 cubic feet per second if the canal be provided with double locks. 
As this small amount is to be drawn partly from the Erie drainage, 
but largely from the Ohio drainage, and is to be discharged from the 
summit level about equally in each direction, it is evident that the 
resultant effect would be a slight additional supply of water to the 
Great Lakes system rather than a diversion therefrom. 

Proposed Lake Erie-Lake Michigan Canal. — A canal to connect 
the southern end of Lake Michigan with the western end of Lake 
Erie has lately been proposed. This canal would shorten the water 
route from Chicago to the East by about 400 miles. In 1911 and 
1912 the National Waterways Commission investigated this route. 
It recommended that a ship canal should not be considered, but 
thought that a barge canal along this route might be justified, and 
urged that the Corps of Engineers make a survey and careful study 
of a barge-canal project. A special board of engineer officers was 
appointed. This board reported in 1917 (see H. Doc. No. 343, 65th 
Cong., 1st sess.). The essential points of the report are as follows: 

Two types of canal are discussed: The first, a ship canal with a depth of 
24 feet; the second, a barge canal with a depth not to exceed 16 feet. The 
principal argument advanced in favor of the former is that a ship canal would 
be necessary to compete with the Georgian Bay Ship Canal, which is contem- 
plated by Canada, and that it would allow the ordinary lake steamers to pass 
through without breaking bulk. In support of the barge canal, it is urged that 
a considerable portion of the traffic of the canal would consist of through 
freight between Cbicago and New York, and that the dimensions of the water- 
way need not be materially greater than those of the New York State Barge 
Canal. The only advantage a ship canal would offer for freight between Chi- 
cago and New York would be the saving in time over the present route through 
the Straits of Mackinac. An analysis of the relative time of the route by the 
canal and by the Straits of Mackinac indicates a saving in favor of the canal 
for a lake speed of less than 11 miles per hour, but a loss if the lake speed 
were increased to 11 miles or more. Considering the relative merits of the 
s !l ip and r . bar Pe canals, the special board is of opinion that the former does not 
olter sufficient advantages to justify its selection. 



166 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The dimensions contemplated for the barge canal conform generally to those 
of the New York State canal, and for the channel are: Depth, 12 feet; over- 
head clearance, 18 feet; bottom width, 110 feet, increasing in open water and 
at bends; and for the locks, width, 45 feet; length between quoins, 338 feet. 
These dimensions are considered suitable for a vessel 300 feet long, 42 feet beam, 
and 10 feet draft. 

A number of routes were covered by reconnaissance, and of these two were 
selected for survey. Both follow the Maumee from Toledo to Fort Wayne, 
whence there is a northern and a southern route to L'ake Michigan. The 
Maumee River is canalized by locks and fixed dams. The elevation of the 
pool at Fort Wayne is 740 feet above sea level, 170 feet above Lake Erie. The 
length of this section is 109.5 miles. 

The northern route is through Elkhart and South Bend to Michigan City. 
Its summit is 250 feet above Lake Erie; its length, 60.7 miles, and it has 
14 locks and 7 guard gates. The total length of the northern route from 
Toledo to Michigan City is 242.5 miles ; to Calumet Harbor, 275 miles ; and 
to Chicago Harbor, 280.5 miles. The total lift above Lake Erie is 250 feet, 
and above Lake Michigan, 241 feet, and there are 23 locks and 14 guard 
gates on the entire route. 

The southern route is by way of Huntington and Rochester to the neigh- 
borhood of Gary, thence via Calumet River and Indiana Harbor to Calumet 
Harbor. Its length is 82.7 miles, its summit, 765 feet above sea level, and 
it has 9 locks and 10 guard gates. The total length of this route from Toledo 
to Calumet Harbor is 269.5 miles, and to Chicago Harbor, 281.5. The total 
lift above Lake Erie is 195 feet and above Lake Michigan, 186 feet, and 
there are 18 locks and 17 guard gates. From an engineering standpoint either 
route is feasible, but there are fewer difficulties to be overcome on the 
northern than on the southern route, and the water supply system of the 
northern route is superior. -Navigation conditions would be practically the 
same by either route. A larger population and more manufacturing interests 
would be served by the northern route, and for various reasons given the special 
board prefers this route. 

It is estimated that with the assistance of flash boards, reservoirs, and 
steam auxiliary it may be practicable to develop a daily output of 16,089 horse- 
power from the dams of the Maumee, provided all the power be developed as a 
whole, and that this might eventually produce a revenue of $96,500. 

Estimates of cost are given as follows : 



Route. 


Single locks. 


Dtouble locks. 


Northern 


$135,078,248 
135, 956, 195 


$147, 042, 764 
148, 829, 893 


Southern 





These figures include right of way, water power, damages, bridges, and termi- 
nals at intermediate points, but not at Toledo and Chicago. Operation and 
maintenance for the northern route are estimated at $2,026,173 for single 
locks and $2,205,642 for double locks, and, for the southern route, $2,039,343 for 
single locks and $2,232,447 for double locks. 

The special board's analysis of traffic possibilities and the economic aspect 
of the project lead to the conclusion that its value should be based primarily 
on its use as a part of a through waterway between the Atlantic seaboard 
and the region of the Great Lakes and Upper Mississippi Valley, although it 
might reasonably be expected that it would confer benefits in the way of 
local traffic. The special board finds that so far as cost of carriage and time 
of transit are concerned the existing through water route from Chicago to 
New York via the Straits of Mackinac is preferable to the proposed water- 
way, even if the large governmental expenditure be not considered. It is of 
opinion that the proposed waterway could not offer rates which would be 
economically sound and at the same time sufficiently low to attract the traffic. 

Comparing the waterway with rail the special board finds that it would be far 
more expensive than a railroad of equal capacity, and that it would have the 
serious disadvantage of being closed to traffic several months of each year 
by ice. The special board is of opinion that as a general principle no expendi- 
ture for additional transportation facilities is warranted if equal or better 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 167 

and adequate facilities already exist or might have been otherwise provided at 
less cost, and in the present case the existing route affords a means of 
cheaper transportation of far greater capacity. The special board finds that 
the possible returns to the United States from the water power that might be 
developed would be relatively so small that they would have little weight 
in determining the advisability of constructing the waterway. In conclusion 
the special board expresses the opinion that a waterway on either of the 
proposed routes promises no advantages over present means of transportation 
at all commensurate with its cost and that the construction of such a water- 
way should not be undertaken by the United States. One member suggests 
further study looking toward the needs of the future. 

The required water supply was estimated not to exceed 1,200 cubic 
feet per second for double locks and maximum traffic possible. This 
supply would come mostly from the tributaries of Lake Michigan 
and Lake Erie and would result in a slight transfer of water from 
one basin to the other. A small amount would probably be received 
from the tributaries of the Mississippi River, and this would result 
in a gain to the Great Lakes Basin. The water supply details were 
not worked out fully. 

Proposed Georgian Bay Ship Canal. — The Georgian Bay Ship 
Canal project is a very large and ambitious scheme. The route by 
the Ottawa River and Lake Nipissing to Georgian Bay was first 
used by Champlain in 1615. For two centuries thereafter it was an 
important route of the western fur trade. The improvement of navi- 
gation along this line began with the building of a small lock at 
X r audreuil near the eastern end in 1816. Two Ottawa River canals, 
namely, the Carillon and Grenville, and the Rideau Canal from 
Ottawa to Kingston were known as the Military Canal. Construc- 
tion of them was commenced in 1827 and finished in 1833. The St. 
Anne de Bellevue Lock was opened in 1841. Since then the Ottawa 
locks have been enlarged at various times. In 1894 the Montreal, 
Ottawa & Georgian Bay Canal Co. was incorporated to build a 
canal with a depth of at least 9 feet from Georgian Bay to Montreal. 
Its charter as amended in 1908 provided that construction should be 
started in 1910 and completed in 1916. As far as is known, no work 
of importance has been done by this company. 

In 1904 the Dominion parliament appropriated $250,000 for mak- 
ing a detailed survey of this route. The board reported in 1909 
that the canal could be built from Montreal Harbor through the 
Ottawa River, Mattawa River, Lake Nipissing, and the French River 
to French River Village, on Georgian Bay for $100,000,000, and in 
10 years' time. Annual maintenance was estimated at $900,000. The 
canal would be 440 miles long and would be large enough for the 
largest lake freighters. The summit level was to be at elevation 677, 
which is 659 feet above Montreal harbor, 98 feet above Georgian 
Bay, and 29 feet above Lake Nipissing. The proposed canal has 23 
locks east of the summit and 4 locks west, 27 locks in all. The 
locks are 650 feet long and 65 feet wide, with 22 feet clear depth on 
the sill. In the river sections slack water is secured by 18 dams. The 
route has 28 miles of canal with a bottom width of 200 feet, 66 miles 
of dredged channel with a bottom width of 300 feet and 346 miles of 
river and lake waterway with widths varying from 300 feet up to 
half a mile. 

The water supply for the summit level is all obtained from streams 
naturally tributary to the Ottawa River. Hence a certain amount of 



168 DIVEKSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

water would be diverted from this river into Georgian Bay. The 
effect on the Great Lakes and their connecting rivers would be in- 
significant, as the total quantity of water estimated to be required 
by the summit level is less than 600 cubic feet per second. 

For several years after this report was published there was much 
controversy between the advocates of the Georgian Bay Canal and 
those who favored enlarging the Welland Canal. Eventually the 
Welland Canal was preferred, and it is understood that the Georgian 
Bay scheme is now dormant although it still has vigorous supporters 
and may be revived at any time. 

W. S. Richmond. 

Section B. 

DIVERSIONS FOR SANITARY PURPOSES. 

1. CHICAGO SANITARY CANAL. 

In the following description and discussion of the sanitary features 
of the Chicago Sanitarj^ and Ship Canal, and allied projects of the 
Sanitary District of Chicago, it is not intended to repeat anything 
already set down in Section A of this report, where the navigation 
features of both the Chicago Sanitary Canal and the Illinois and 
Michigan Canal are treated, but only to elaborate sufficiently to make 
clear the sanitary features. Attention is invited to the maps given 
on plates 4 and 5 and to photographs Nos. 11 to 16. 

Geography of district. — The city of Chicago is situated in what 
geologists call the "Chicago Plain." This is a crescent-shaped strip 
of low land lying along the southwest shore of Lake Michigan, 
bounded by the lake and by a range of low hills called the "Val- 
paraiso morain." The plain begins at Winnetka on the north and 
extends along the south shore beyond Gary. Its width varies from 
2 to 15 miles. 

Three rivers — the Des Plaines, the Chicago, and the Calumet — 
drain the Chicago Plain. The Des Plaines River rises in the State of 
Wisconsin and runs nearly due south, parallel with the lake shore, 
and generally not more than 8 or 10 miles from it, until it reaches 
a point about 13 miles in a southwest direction from the mouth of 
the Chicago River. Here is a slight depression a mile or more in 
width extending across from the Des Plaines to the South Branch 
of Chicago River through which a part of the waters of the Des 
Plaines, in time of flood, formerly were discharged into Lake 
Michigan. 

There is little doubt that through this depression there was once 
an outlet from the Lakes to the Mississippi, which was closed by 
the recession of the waters of the lake. Even now the surface of 
Lake Michigan is only 8 or 9 feet below this summit. The Des 
Plaines River, from the depression described, changes its course and 
runs in a nearly southwest direction until hV joins the Kankakee, 
forming the Illinois River. Except in floods, the Des Plaines is very 
shallow, often being reduced in dry seasons to a mere brook, dis- 
charging less than 17 cubic feet per second. The valley, however, 
averages a mile wide and is terminated on both sides by well-marked 
terraces which become higher and higher as they approach the Illi- 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVEE. 169 

nois. There is much evidence that the water, when this was the great 
outlet of the lakes, extended from bluff to bluff. The total length 
of the Des Plaines is about 105 miles. 

The Chicago River, flowing at right angles to the lake shore, is 
only about 1 mile in length. It is formed by the junction of the 
North and South Branches. The North Branch rises in Lake County 
and has a length of about 27 miles, roughly parallel to the lake shore 
and distant from it about 1 to 7 miles. The South Branch has a 
length of about 4 miles from its forks to the junction with the North 
Branch. The West Fork originally flowed from Mud Lake near 
the present Kedzie Avenue bridge and extended east to the forks, a 
distance of about 2^ miles. The South Fork is about 1J miles long. 
Its east arm and west arm each had an original length of a little 
over 1 mile. 

The depression lying between the Des Plaines River and the West 
Fork of the Chicago River was formerly occupied by a swampy pond 
or chain of ponds. The early French traders called this " Le Petit 
Lac," while the English name was " Portage Lake." Later the name 
" Mud Lake " was commonly used. The lake was about 5 miles long 
and from one-fourth of a mile to 1 mile in width. It extended from 
Kedzie Avenue nearly to the Des Plaines River. In very dry sum- 
mers it was reduced to a mere mud hole. Under more favorable con- 
ditions the water was several feet deep and discharged into either 
the Chicago or Des Plaines Rivers. An early trade route between 
Canada and the Mississippi Valley ran here and under favorable con- 
ditions boats of several tons burthen could be floated through. At 
other times a portage of from 1 to 4 miles was required. During 
floods of the Des Plaines a large amount of water was discharged 
through Mud Lake and the Chicago River into Lake Michigan. 

In 1868 the " Ogden Ditch " was excavated through Mud Lake, 
and six years later the " Ogden Dam " at the southwest end of the 
ditch was built to keep out the Des Plaines floods. As a result of 
this construction and of the general settlement and drainage of the 
surrounding country, Mud Lake gradually disappeared. All that 
is now visible on its former site is the Ogden Ditch and the upper 
reaches of the West Fork of Chicago River above Kedzie Avenue. 

The Calumet River rises in Laporte County, Ind., and flows in a 
'westerly direction, nearly parallel to the shore of Lake Michigan, a 
distance of about 45 miles to a suburb known as Blue Island. Here 
it turns abruptly and takes an easterly direction parallel to its pre- 
vious course but 2 or 3 miles farther north. It finally reaches its 
natural outlet to the lake after doubling on itself nearly 22 miles. 
To distinguish its two parallel portions the southern has been named 
the " Little Calumet " and the northern the " Grand Calumet." 

The natural outlet mentioned above is about 3 -}> miles east of Gary. 
It has been practically closed by aquatic growth and drifting sand, 
and the river now discharges into Lake Michigan through an arti- 
ficial channel passing between Calumet Lake and Wolf Lake and 
forming the harbor of South Chicago. It connects with the Calumet 
near Hegewisch. This channel is said to have been opened by the 
Indians and traders about 1811. It has subsequently been enlarged 
by various navigation interests. Since 1870 it has been improved 
by the Government and now affords an excellent harbor with piers 
and breakwater affording shelter for the largest lake vessels. 



170 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

From the extreme westerly point of the Little Calumet River, 
south of Blue Island, another depression leads west to the Des 
Plaines River. This is called " The Sag " and is very similar to the 
one described above between the Chicago and Des Plaines. The Sag 
is about 15 miles long and rather less than a mile wide. Like the 
northern depression, it once served as a southerly outlet for the 
waters of the lake. 

Exploration and settlement. — In the late summer of 1673 the ex- 
ploring expedition of Louis Joliet and Pere Marquette passed 
through the Chicago portage on their return from their first voyage 
to the Mississippi. This is the first known appearance of white men 
at Chicago and the first use by white men of the Chicago-Des Plaines 
portage. The further use of the portage is recounted by La Salle, 
Tonty, Joutel, and other explorers during the next dozen years. 
In 1697 Tonty and La Forest had a warehouse and trading post at 
** Chicagou " and this is the earliest recorded settlement there. A 
Jesuit, Father Dablon, made an official report in 1673 on the new 
discoveries around the western lakes and the Mississippi Valley. 
In this he proposed the excavation of a ship canal connecting Lake 
Michigan and the Des Plaines River. This seems to have been the 
first mention of an idea which has been much in men's minds ever 
since and resulted, after the lapse of two and a quarter centuries, 
in the construction of the Chicago Drainage Canal. 

During the eighteenth century the Chicago route was much used 
"by traders and travelers. At times white men lived at the lake end, 
and a fort built there by the French was garrisoned for awhile, but 
no permanent settlement seems to have resulted. In 1795 Gen. An- 
thony Wayne made a treaty with the Indians whereby they ceded 
to the United States, among other lands, " one piece of land 6 miles 
square at the mouth of the Chicago River, emptying into the south- 
west end of Lake Michigan, where a fort formerly stood." This 
treaty also assured the United States the free use of the Chicago- 
Des Plaines portage. In 1803 Fort Dearborn was built and gar- 
risoned. There was then but one house outside of the fort. In 1812 
there were five houses, but at the outbreak of the war with England 
the fort was abandoned and nearly all of the garrison and settlers 
were massacred by the Indians. The fort was rebuilt in 1816 and a 
new treaty signed by which the Indians gave up a strip of land 10 
miles wide on each side of the Chicago River, the portage, and the 
Des Plaines River. 

The " town of Chicago " was platted by the Commissioners of the 
Illinois and Michigan Canal in 1830. It contained about a dozen 
houses and less than 100 inhabitants. Its growth was slow until 
the close of the Black Hawk War in 1833. The first census, taken 
in 1837, showed a population of more than 4,000. Since then the 
growth has been rapid and continuous, with an average yearly incre- 
ment of over 8 per cent. In 1918 the population of the city of 
Chicago was estimated at 2,575,000. 

Early sanitary conditions. — The early settlers drew their water 
supply from shallow wells or from the lake shore. In the thirties 
water carts did a big business. These were filled at the shore and 
peddled water from house to house. In 1836 the Chicago Hydraulic 
Co. was incorporated for the purpose of furnishing a public water 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 171 



supply. Its water works system went into operation in 1842. The 
intake was about 500 feet off shore and water was pumped by steam 
power and distributed through wooden pipes to the South Side and 
part of the West Side of the city. The North Side was still supplied 
from wells and carts. The pumping station was at the corner of 
Lake Street and Michigan Avenue and the intake was close to the 
mouth of the Chicago Eiver. The river served as a sewer for a large 
part of the city and was rapidly becoming very foul. By 1850 the 
water supplied b}^ the hydraulic company was intolerably bad and 
the supply was quite inadequate, being only sufficient for about one- 
fifth of the city. An epidemic of cholera occurred in this year. 

In 1851 the city obtained the incorporation of the City Hydraulic 
Co. It bought the rights and franchise of the older company and 
commenced pumping in 1854. The intake was a basin on the lake 
shore protected by a breakwater. It was situated at the foot of 
Chicago Avenue, about 3,000 feet north of the river. For several 
3 ears the operation of the new works was uniform and satisfactory. 
Then, as the population of the city and the pollution of the lake 
shore and river increased, the quality of the water supply again 
became very bad. 

Since 1860 the history of the Chicago water supply shows a steady 
and continuous growth combined with ever-renewed efforts to get a 
purer supply by extending the intake farther into the lake to escape 
the increasing pollution of the shore waters. In 1864 the first tun- 
nel was built. This was 5 feet in diameter and 2 miles long, and 
liad at its outer end an intake crib reaching above the lake surface. 
The building of new tunnels and intakes has continued at intervals 
ever since until now there are no less than seven intake cribs. The 
newest and largest is nearly 4 miles from shore. These great works 
have cost the city many millions of dollars. 

In its youngest days the city was quite without drains or sewers. 
As the population increased, drainage and sewage was allowed to run 
in the gutters of the streets. In 1849 the city commenced a compre- 
hensive system of planked streets. Some of these were cut down to 
a very low grade, in order that the street might drain the abutting 
property. A few small wooden sewers were built, chiefly on Clark, 
La Salle, and Wells Streets. They drained into the river and ex- 
tended no farther south than Eandolph Street. By this time the 
population had reached 30,000 and conditions were very bad. The 
following extract from a local newspaper in the summer of 1850 
gives a picture of the situation: 

The wonder is not that we have had cholera in our midst for two seasons in 
succession, and that the common diseases of the country are fatally prevalent 
during the summer months, but that a worse plague does not take up perma- 
nent residence with us. Many of the populous localities are noisome quag- 
mires, the gutters running with filth at which the very swine turn up their 
noses in supreme disgust. Even some portions of the planked streets, say, for 
instance, Lake between Clark and La Salle, are scarcely in better sanitary 
condition than those which are not planked. The gutters at the crossings are 
clogged up, leaving standing pools of indescribable liquid, there to salute the 
noses of passers-by. There being no chance to drain them properly, the water 
accumulates under the planking, into which flows all manner of filth, and 
during the hot weather of the last few weeks the whole reeking mass of 
abominations has steamed up through every opening, and the miasma thus 
elaborated has been wafted into the neighboring shops and dwellings to poison 
their inmates. 



172 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

In the next few years much was done toward draining the swamps 
that surrounded the city and some 40 or 50 square miles were re- 
claimed, but provision for city sewage removal made little prog- 
ress. In 1854 there were only 4J miles of sewers within the city. 
In 1855 a board of sewer commissioners for the city was incorporated, 
which prepared a plan for a comprehensive system of sewers to cover 
the principal portions of the city. The Chicago River, with its 
North and South branches, naturally divide the city into three 
drainage districts. The new sewers of the west and north districts 
were to drain into the river, while those of the south district drained 
about half into the river and half directly into the lake. Work 
was at once commenced on this system. From this time on the 
growth of the sewerage system has paralleled the growth of the city. 
The natural flow of the Chicago River, except at flood times, is 
very small. As the city grew the distilling and slaughtering indus- 
tries became very important and discharged vast quantities of waste 
into the river, which already received the drainage of a rapidly 
growing city. By 1845 the stream had become terribly offensive. 
The east and west arms of the South Branch became mere stagnant, 
scum-covered cesspools or septic tanks which received the blood and 
refuse from the great packing plants. The other parts of the river 
were nearly as bad. Unsightly, filthy scum floated on the surface, 
foul odors from the surface drifted across the city, and deep beds 
of sludge were deposited on the bottom, to the obstruction of navi- 
gation. Summer thunderstorms or sudden lowerings of the lake 
occasionally set up a current in the river and sent some of its con- 
taminated waters into the lake. The spring freshets of the Chicago 
and Des Plaines flushed out the whole accumulation of poisonous 
sludge and scum, and only too often drifted them toward and about 
the waterworks intakes. 

As a natural result of these conditions, the general health of the 
community was very poor and the death rate from all diseases was 
high. All intestinal and water-borne diseases were widespread and 
typhoid fever was endemic. Several severe epidemics of water-borne 
diseases occurred, notably those of Asiatic cholera in 1834 and 1849 
and of typhoid in 1892. < . . 

Early sanitary improvements. — The opening of the Illinois and 
Michigan Canal in 1848 was the first occurrence that tended to im- 
prove the bad condition of the Chicago River. This canal had a 
summit level about 8 feet above the lake which received part of its 
supply by pumpage from the river. The pumps were located at 
Bridgeport, at the head of the canal, near what is now Ashland Ave- 
nue. While this pumping had been intended only to supply water 
for the navigation of the canal, it was soon found that it was causing 
sufficient current in the South Branch to perceptibly cleanse its 
waters. This led to an arrangement with the canal commissioners 
in 1865 by which the latter agreed to pump water from the river 
at certain times for the relief of the city from the serious annoyances 
of a badly contaminated river. The pumping was chiefly done in the 
summer and early fall when the river conditions were at their worst. 
The usual rate was 200 cubic feet per second or a little less. 

In 1871 the summit level of the canal was lowered so as to draw 
its supply directly from the river. It was hoped that this would 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 173 

result in the establishment of a permanent flow of lake water through 
the South Branch sufficient to keep it in good condition. These 
hopes were not realized. The volume discharged down the canal was 
less than had been expected, while under certain conditions of wind, 
rainfall, and lake level the flow toward the lake was reestablished. 
In 1879 there was a lakeward current for 30 days and no perceptible 
current either way for 10 days. The mean flow was less than 300 
cubic feet per second. As the population of the city was now about 
half a million and the greater part of the sewage went down the 
canal, its pollution was very great. The dilution obtained probably 
did not exceed 1 cubic foot per second for each thousand inhabitants. 
The canal carried a disgusting fllthiness and an overwhelming odor 
throughout its whole length. 

In 1881 the protest of the people of Joliet and other parts of the 
Des Plaines and Illinois Valleys had become so loud that the State 
passed a resolution requiring Chicago to provide a flow of 1,000 cubic 
feet per second or abandon the use of the canal for sewage dilution. 
In compliance with these resolutions the city built a new pumping 
station of the required capacity at Bridgeport, together with a lock 
to prevent back flow from the canal into the river. Pumping com- 
menced in 1883. For a few years this afforded sufficient dilution in 
the canal and there were no more complaints from the valley. Un- 
fortunately when the pumping plant was installed Lake Michigan 
stood at a very high stage and the pumps were given only sufficient 
capacity to provide the legal 1,000 cubic feet per second under these 
conditions. In 1886 the lake level began to fall, and continued to 
do so until in 1891 it was about 2 feet lower than when the pumps 
were installed. Their capacity thereby being reduced to a little more 
than 600 cubic feet per second. As the growth of the city had con- 
tinued at its usual rate, the nuisance along the canal became at times 
as bad as ever. 

For many years the North Branch of the Chicago River occasioned 
no serious trouble. It did not receive a great deal of domestic sew- 
age, and most of the slaughterhouses were on the other branch. By 
1870 the northward growth of the city and the discharge of the 
refuse from several large distilleries into the North Branch had 
produced a serious nuisance there. To abate this the Fullerton Ave- 
nue conduit was constructed and put in operation in 1880. This 
was a 12- foot circular, brick-lined tunnel, about 12,000 feet long, 
extending from an intake in the lake to the river, along the line of 
Fullerton Avenue. The pumping station was at the river end of 
the conduit. The capacity of the pumps was about 400 cubic feet 
per second. The usual pumpage was something more than half as 
much. For some years this was enough to keep the North Branch 
in reasonably good condition. 

Development of the drainage- canal plan. — Throughout the nine- 
teenth century the phenomenal and sustained growth of Chicago 
continually frustrated all attempted solutions of its sanitary prob- 
lems. On several occasions plans were adopted which were expected 
to cure certain evils, and before a decade had elapsed after their 
completion the growth of the city had made conditions as bad as 
ever. 



174 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Much was done by the Citizens' Association of Chicago between 
the years 1880 and 1889 in creating and fostering a public sentiment 
which demanded better drainage and water supply for the city. 
Several expert examinations were made by the association, and its 
reports were given to the people through the daily papers and printed 
pamphlets. These investigations and the resulting discussions led 
to a more exact and complete investigation by the drainage commis- 
sion under the authority of the city. In 1880 the association re- 
ferred the question of main drainage to a committee, with a request 
that they recommend some system for the disposal of the sewage 
which would be adequate for the present and future needs of the 
city. In its final report the committee recommended a canal from 
the South Branch of the Chicago River to the Des Planes River at 
Joliet. A drainage district was to be formed including South Chi- 
cago, Lake, Cicero, and the towns of the North Shore. The total 
cost of the project was estimated at $12,000,000. The importance of 
this report is found in the fact that it suggested the idea which 
developed into the law of 1889 creating the Sanitary District of 
Chicago and providing for the drainage canal. 

Prompted by the recommendations of the Chicago Citizens' As- 
sociation and the urgent appeals of the press, the city council passed 
a resolution in January, 1886, authorizing the creation of a drain- 
age and water supply commission of three members. Mayor Har- 
rison appointed Rudolph Hering, Benezette Williams, and Samuel G. 
Artingstall. A preliminary report was made in January, 1887, but 
the work of the commission was not finished, as the city council was 
unwilling to provide the necessary funds. The commission recom- 
mended a drainage canal system very similar to the one afterward 
constructed, including the Calumet-Sag branch. The system also 
included the diversion of the flood waters of the upper Des Plaines 
and North Branch into the lake by a canal through Bowmanville, 
some distance north of the city. 

In May, 1889, after two and a half years of investigation and de- 
bate the State legislature passed the bill creating the Sanitary Dis- 
trict of Chicago. The original district was laid out with an area 
of 185 square miles and included a number of municipalities which 
were later annexed in large part to the city of Chicago. The project 
was adopted by popular vote in November, 1889, and trustees were 
elected the following month. The board organized January 12, 1890. 
The Supreme Court of Illinois affirmed the validity of the act in 
June, 1890. 

The North Shore was annexed by the act of 1903, thus extending 
the district to the north line of Cook County. It comprised the 
townships of Evanston, Niles, and New Trier and parts of three 
others, an area of 78.6 square miles along the lake shore and in the 
Chicago River basin, the drainage problems of which are largely 
identified with those of the original district. 

The Calumet region, also annexed by the act of 1903, covered the 
urban district south of Eighty-sevenths Street and west of the In- 
diana State line. It comprised that part of Chicago south of 
Eighty-seventh Street, the township of Calumet, and parts of three 
other townships, an area of 94.5 square miles, wholly in the Calumet 
Basin, the drainage problems of which are quite independent of 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 175 

those of the Chicago Basin but are complicated with those of the 
urban district of the Calumet Basin east of the State line in northern 
Indiana. 

With the annexed territories, the Sanitary District of Chicago 
covers the entire water front of Cook County, with a shore line of 
some 33 miles. By subsequent annexation of districts to the west, 
its total area has been increased to 388.14 square miles. Its esti- 
mated population in July, 1918, was 2,764,000, of whom 164,000 live 
in the Calumet subdivision. The inhabitants of the Calumet drain- 
age basin in the State of Indiana are estimated at about 168,000. 

The law of 1889 constituted the sanitary district as a " quasi- 
municipal corporation " for the purpose of disposing of the drain- 
age and sewage of the communities composing the district. It is: 
empowered to levy taxes within the district and issue bonds on the 
district's credit. It can develop and sell such new water power as 
its sanitary operations render available and, in general, do all things 
necessary for or naturally arising from its main purpose. The law 
prescribed that any drainage canal constructed must have a flow 
of at least 3J cubic feet per second for each thousand persons tribu- 
tary to it, and must be " kept and maintained of such size and in such 
condition that the water thereof shall be neither offensive or in- 
jurious to the health of any of the people of this State." Where the 
canal ran through rock it was to have a capacity of at least 10,000 
cubic feet per second, and in earth it could be of half this capacity 
with provision for enlarging to 10,000. 

Work was commenced on the excavation of the canal in 1892 and 
on the collateral improvement of the Chicago River in 1896. A de- 
scription of the canal and the river improvement will be found in 
Sections A and C of this report. 

An intercepting sewer system covering the lake front from Eighty- 
seventh Street to the northern city limits was constructed by the 
city of Chicago. The northern division discharges through a 16- 
foot conduit between the lake and the North Branch at Lawrence 
Avenue. This conduit is much larger than would be required for 
sewage alone, and is used to flush the North Branch by pumping 
water from the lake. The pumping works are on Lawrence Avenue 
about three-quarters mile from the lake shore. Pumping began in 
1908. In 1917 the mean pumpage from the lake was 169 cubic feet 
per second. The pumps were not operated to pump water from the 
lake in February and very little in March, presumably because the 
spring floods flushed the North Branch sufficiently without artificial 
aid. The maximum monthly mean pumpage from the lake was 314 
cubic feet per second. At times as much as 500 cubic feet per second 
is pumped from the lake for a few hours. The capacity of the pump- 
ing station and conduit is about 873 cubic feet per second, of which 38 
is intended for the dry-weather sewage, 250 for the storm-water flow, 
and the remaining 585 for lake water. 

The southern division of the intercepting sewer system discharges 
through a 20-foot conduit at Thirty-ninth Street. This conduit ex- 
tends from the lake to the " Stockyard Slip " or east arm of the 
South Fork. A pumping station on the lake shore at Thirty-ninth 
Street is intended to pump lake water through this conduit to flush 
the South Fork. Pumping began in 1907. In 1917 very little pump- 



176 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

ing of lake water was done ; none whatever during nine months. The 
monthly mean pumpage during each of the other three months was 
10, 134, and 27 cubic feet per second, respectively. The capacity of 
the Thirty-ninth Street conduits and pumps is 2,000 cubic feet per 
second. Of this 150 is designed to handle the dry-weather flowage, 
500 the storm flow, and the remaining 1,350 lake water. 

The North Shore Canal extends from the lake shore in the village 
of Wilmette to the North Branch at Lawrence Avenue, and is 
intended to provide an outlet for the shore towns and the territory 
north of the city limits and to furnish additional water for flushing 
the North Branch. This channel is 26 feet wide on the bottom, 12 
feet deep, and about 8J miles long, and is operated by pumping works 
at Wilmette. It was opened in 1910. In 1917 the mean pumpage 
was 548 cubic feet per second, the maximum monthly mean being 
770 cubic feet per second. The capacity of the pumps and canal is 
about 1,000 cubic feet per second. 

The part of the Des Plaines River paralleling the drainage canal 
was straightened and improved, and some levees were built on the 
east side of the river. A spillway, opened in 1909, leads from the 
river to the canal at Willow Springs. As a result of these changes 
the spring freshets of the Des Plaines no longer discharge into Ogden 
Ditch and the South Branch of the Chicago Eiver. 

It is understood that the Fullerton Avenue pumping station, Avhich 
was formerly used for flushing the North Branch with lake water, 
is no longer in use. 

The yearly mean flow of the drainage canal from its opening to 
1917 as reported by the engineers of the Sanitary District is given in 
Table No. 11. 

Table No. 11. — Yearly mean diversion through Chicago Sanitary Canal as re- 
ported by engineer of the sanitary district in cubic feet per second. 



1900 2, 900 

1901 4, 046 

1902 4, 302 

1903 4, 971 

1904 4, 793 

1905 4, 480 

1906 4, 473 

1907 5, 116 

1908 4, 421 



1909 2, 766 

1910 3, 458 

1911 6, 445 

1912 6, 424 

1913 7, 191 

1914 7, 105 

1915 6, 971 

1916 7, 325 

1917 7, 786 



These figures represent the flow at Lockport. They include the 
natural drainage of the Chicago Basin, the pumpage of the three 
stations described above, the sewage of the district, and occasional 
Des Plaines flood water entering by the spillway at Willow Springs. 
In 1917, when the mean flow was 7,786 cubic feet per second, the 
maximum flow reported was 17,500 and the minimum 2,150. The 
maximum daily mean flow in 1917 was 9,891 cubic feet per second 
and the minimum daily mean 5,184. The maximum monthly mean 
was 8,907 and the minimum monthly mean 6,916. On a score or more 
of days between April and November, 1517, the discharge for a time 
ran very high, the highest peak reported being 17,500 cubic feet 
per second on September 23. The explanation for these high dis- 
charge values, as given by the chief engineer, is that repair work on 
the walls of the canal necessitated drawing down the canal level on 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 177 

these days, and this could be accomplished only by opening the 
controlling works so as to create a very large flow, especially as Lake 
Michigan stood 1 to 2 feet above datum. 

All the values of discharge given in the preceding paragraph are 
either taken direct or derived from figures submitted by the chief 
engineer of the Sanitary District. It is believed that they are too 
small by 5 to 12 per cent. The monthly averages of reported flow 
through the main canal have been checked against the flow of the 
Des Plaines River at Joliet as measured by the United States Geo- 
logical Survey. The gauging section of the Geological Survey does 
not include the flow leaving Joliet in the Illinois & Michigan Canal, 
and it does include the natural flow of the Des Plaines above the 
mouth of the drainage canal. These quantities have been measured 
separately by the survey. Adding the former quantity to the flow 
found at the gauging station and subtracting the latter quantity, 
there results of volume of flow which must have come down the Main 
Drainage Canal. For the 34 months, March, 1915, to December, 1917, 
both inclusive, the drainage canal discharge, as computed from the 
discharge data of the Geological Survey, averages 12 per cent greater 
than as reported by the Sanitary District, the excess for the month of 
maximum difference being 19 per cent and for the minimum 5 per 
cent. Such measurements by the Geological Survey are usually con- 
sidered reliable within 2 or 3 per cent, with 5 per cent an outside 
limit. The values given by the Sanitary District, on the other hand, 
are obtained by computing the discharge of turbines at the power 
house and of flow over spillways. In computing turbine discharge the 
machine efficiency is assumed to be that shown by a new model wheel. 
Usually turbines deteriorate with age and their efficiencies become 
less, so that they consume more water in producing a given amount 
of power. It is thought that proper allowance has not been made 
for this factor. It is also believed that the flow over the wasteways 
is somewhat greater than as given by the formula used. 

Another reason for believing the Sanitary District figures too small 
is that they give smaller values for the flow on certain days in De- 
cember, 1913, than actual measurements by the United States Lake 
Survey. A perfectly satisfactory comparison of the two sets of 
values is not possible, because most of the Lake Survey measure- 
ments were taken when the storage in the canal was accumulating, 
so that the flow at Lemont, where the Lake Survey measurements 
were taken, was larger than at the controlling works, 7 miles below. 
The Lake Survey measurements average 10 per cent larger than the 
sanitary district figures. On the day when measurements were 
made almost continuously for 24 hours they show 4| per cent 
larger. 

The flow in the lower end of the canal always varies considerably 
during the day, being generally small during the daytime and 
large at night. The flow is regulated mostly by the draft of water 
at the power house, which carries a heavy lighting load at night. 
The Saturday and Sunday loads do not differ greatly from the 
loads of other week days. 

During the 12 hours or more that the heavy night load is on the 
storage in the canal is being drawn down while the water surface 

27880—21 12 



178 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

profile along the canal gradually approaches its new position of 
equilibrium. This equilibrium requires much more than 12 hours 
for establishment, and it therefore happens that the flow into the 
upper end of the canal has not become as great as the flow 
out of the lower end at daybreak when the lighting load is thrown 
off. During the daytime conditions are reversed, and the inflow is 
greater than the outflow, the storage being built up slowly. Be- 
cause of this fact the diversion from Lake Michigan is never quite 
as large as the maximum figures indicate, but the monthly and 
yearly averages are practically free from this effect. A small por- 
tion of the diversion is, of course, diverted from the Chicago River 
watershed, and so is withheld from Lake Michigan but not diverted 
therefrom. In times of greatest storms this local yield probably 
equals or exceeds 10,000 cubic feet per second. 

The "present system. — By the construction of the elaborate drain- 
age system described above the poor sanitary conditions of a half 
century ago have largely been remedied. All the important sections 
of the river receive sufficient lake water to keep up a continuous 
current through them. Septic action no longer occurs in them and 
no serious nuisance exists. The city's water supply comes from 
intakes well out in the lake, and under ordinary conditions its quality 
is very satisfactory. The improvement in sanitation has been re- 
flected in a decrease in the death rate of the city, particularly, of 
course, in deaths from water-borne disease. The typhoid rate in 
1918 was lower than in any other large city of the United States. 
Down the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers for many miles the sewage 
pollution is very noticeable and often offensive, although no really 
serious nuisance appears to exist. At Ottawa, for example, the 
river is dark and discolored in appearance, and a stale, strong odor 
arises which is very disagreeable to persons along the shores or on 
the river in boats, and is plainly noticeable to those crossing the high- 
way bridge high above the water. A short distance from the river, 
however, the nostrils do not detect it. All fishes and aquatic vege- 
table growths have disappeared down to this point and for some 
distance below. Conditions are better than they were when, in times 
of very small summer flow, these streams received the sewage of 
Joliet, Peoria, and other cities. In the lower Illinois River the carp 
fisheries are said to have improved since the canal was opened. The 
water-power industries in the valley have been much benefited. The 
damage to navigation interests in the Great Lakes system is discussed 
in Sections G and H of this report. 

The law creating the sanitary district provided that where sewage 
was disposed of by dilution the amount of water supplied should be 
not less than 3 \ cubic feet per second for every 1,000 population 
served. This rate has not been maintained, the apparent reason 
therefor being the opposition of the shipping interests and the War 
Department. In the last few years this rate has been reached, or 
very nearly reached, throughout the greater part of July, August, 
and September, but only occasionally during the winter and spring. 
It is the general opinion of sanitary engineers that this rate of 3^ 
cubic feet per second per 1,000 population represents the lower limit 
of permissible dilution and that a greater amount is usually needed 
to give satisfactory results. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 179 

There now remain only two things that threaten the purity of the 
Chicago water supply. One is the discharge of the Calumet River at 
South Chicago. This carries the drainage from an area of 827 square 
miles and the sewage of 378,000 people. Normally the lake current 
at the point of discharge sets to the southeast and carries the pollu- 
tion away from the Chicago waterworks intakes, but under certain 
unusual weather conditions the current is reversed and the water 
supply to the more southerly intakes may be poisoned. The other 
thing is the occasional restoration of the old eastward flow in the 
Chicago River, due to sudden intense storms. When a very violent 
rainstorm strikes the whole Chicago Basin the total run-off becomes 
very nearly 10,000 cubic feet per second, and possibly more. If the 
canal is discharging much less than this amount, it is possible that 
some flow into the lake may occur before the discharge of the canal 
can be increased enough to carry away the whole storm run-off. If 
this occurs some pollution of the water supply may result. 

The Calumet-Sag Canal. — When the population of the South Chi- 
cago region began to increase rapidly, it became evident that its sew- 
age was a considerable menace to the Chicago water supply. In 
1903 this region was annexed to the Sanitary District. Its popula- 
tion was then about 100,000. Mr. Rudolph Hering, a well-known 
sanitary engineer, made a study of disposing of its sewage. He re- 
ported that it was feasible to treat the sewage by sprinkling filters and 
other apparatus so that there would be practically no danger of in- 
juring the Chicago water. He recommended, however, that disposal 
by dilution through a canal running from the Little Calumet River to 
the drainage canal was cheaper and more desirable. The proposed 
canal was to run from the mouth of Stony Creek, on the little Calu- 
met River, about a mile and a half east of Blue Island, to a point on 
the canal about 3 miles above Lemont. Its length would be about 
16 miles. Its discharge capacity was planned to be 4,000 cubic feet 
per second. This scheme was adopted by the district, except that the 
capacity was to be made only 2,000 cubic feet per second at first, 
and later enlarged progressively to the full 4,000 cubic feet per 
second capacity. As first constructed, the canal was to be 20 feet 
deep, 60 feet wide in rock, and 36 feet wide at the bottom in earth, 
with side slopes of 1 on 2 or flatter. When enlarged to ultimate ca- 
pacity it was to be 22 feet deep, 90 feet wide in rock cut, and 70 feet 
wide at the bottom in earth cut, with side slopes of 3 on 5. Construc- 
tion was commenced October 16, 1907, but was soon stopped because 
of opposition by the War Department. On March 23, 1908, the 
United States brought suit to restrain the Sanitary District from 
going ahead with the construction, but mainly for the purpose of de- 
termining in the courts the question of jurisdiction. Little or no prog- 
ress was made in the construction until the Secretary of War, on 
June 30, 1910, granted a permit to complete the work provided the 
quantity of water diverted from Lake Michigan through both the 
Calumet River and the Chicago River together should not exceed the 
diversion already authorized by the Secretary of War for the Chi- 
cago River, namely , 250,000 cubic feet per minute, which is the equiva- 
lent of 4,166| cubic feet per second. Beginning in 1911 the work was 
prosecuted with considerable vigor until at present it is nearly com- 
plete, though not in use. 



180 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The operation of this canal will prevent sewage from the Calumet 
region from entering the lake during the greater part of the year. 
During the spring freshets and during heavy summer rains, how- 
ever, its capacity will be much too small and a large flow into the 
lake must result. The drainage area of these rivers is large and 
flood flow is much greater than in the Chicago River. It has been 
estimated that the maximum flood flow of the Calumet River exceeds 
15,000 cubic feet per second. The flow exceeds the capacity of the 
Sag Canal many times each year, and each time this happens there 
will be discharge of sewage into the lake at South Chicago, unless 
provision is made to keep all sewage out of the Calumet. The situa- 
tion could be somewhat relieved by opening the old Grand Calumet 
outlet east of Gary or by the construction of a new artificial outlet, 
but this would be but a partial cure, as the floods of the Little Calu- 
met alone far exceed the capacity of the Sag Canal. Any such inter- 
ference with the Grand Calumet drainage would require the coopera- 
tion of the State of Indiana. 

The " St. Louis-Chicago lawsuit" — On the very day that the 
drainage canal was opened the State of Missouri brought suit to 
prevent its use. This suit was a proceeding in equity instituted by 
the State of Missouri on January 17, 1900, against the State of Illi- 
nois and the Sanitary District of Chicago, praying for an injunc- 
tion against the defendant from draining into the Mississippi River 
the sewage and drainage of said sanitary district by way of the 
Chicago Drainage Canal and the channels of the Des Plaines and 
Illinois Rivers. Later a supplementary bill was filed alleging that 
since the original bill of complaint was filed the canal has been 
opened and that all the evil effects apprehended have been produced 
by it. The introduction of evidence occupied several years. A very 
large number of witnesses were examined, including many of the 
leading physicians, bacteriologists, and sanitary engineers of the 
United States. The expert opinions of these men were extraordina- 
rily divergent and in many cases absolutely contradictory. Some 
claimed that the operation of the sanitary canal had made the 
St. Louis water supply dangerous and unsatisfactory, while others 
claimed that it had improved the quality and safety of that supply. 
The case was argued before the Supreme Court of the United States 
in October, 1905. The court apparently felt that real damage to 
the St. Louis water supply was not definitely proven, for on Feb- 
ruary 19, 1906, the case was dismissed without prejudice. If better 
evidence or proofs were discovered on the Missouri side a similar suit 
might be brought a second time, but no such action has been taken. 

The Federal permits. — Mention has already been made in the de- 
scription of the Calumet- Sag Canal of certain permits issued by the 
Secretary of War. The first request for a Federal permit made by 
the Sanitary District of Chicago was addressed to the Secretary of 
War under date of June 16, 1896, at which time excavation of the 
main drainage canal was well under way. This request was to 
widen and deepen the South Branch of Chicago River at designated 
points in order that it might have capacity to conduct to the head of 
the artificial canal a flow of 5,000 cubic feet of water per second at a 
velocity of 1J miles per hour. The request was granted by letter of 
the Secretary of War, dated July 3, 1896, under specified conditions, 









DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 181 

among which was the following : u That the authority shall not be 
interpreted as approval of the plans of the Sanitary District of Chi- 
cago to introduce a current into Chicago River. This latter propo- 
sition must be hereafter submitted for consideration." Further per- 
mits respecting Chicago River improvement were granted November 
16, 1897, November 30, 1898, January 13, 1899, March 10, 1899, and 
May 12, 1899. 

On April 22, 1899, the Sanitary District made application to the 
Secretary of War for permission to open the canal as soon as com- 
pleted and discharge through it waters of Chicago River and Lake 
Michigan, reversing the current in Chicago River. This permit was 
granted May 8, 1899, it being expressly stipulated that the permit 
was temporary and- revocable at will ; that it would be changed if 
found necessary to protect commerce in the river from unreasonable 
obstruction because of the current, or to protect property from in- 
jury ; and also, " That it is distinctly understood that it is the inten- 
tion of the Secretary of War to submit the questions connected with 
the work of the Sanitary District of Chicago to Congress for consid- 
eration and final action, and that this permit shall be subject to such 
action as may be taken by Congress." 

An additional permit with reference to improvement of Chicago 
River was granted July 11, 1900. 

On April 9, 1901, the permit of May 8, 1899, was modified, re- 
stricting the flow through Chicago River and its South Branch to a 
maximum of 200,000 cubic feet per minute, equal to 3,333^ cubic feet 
per second. The permit recites that " it is alleged by various com- 
mercial and navigation interests that the present discharge from the 
river into the drainage canal sometimes exceeds 300,000 cubic feet 
per minute, causing a velocity of nearly 3 miles per hour, which 
<:reat]y endangers navigation in the present condition of the river." 
Upon application of the sanitary district, another modification was 
made by the Secretary of War on July 23, 1901, permitting a flow 
of 300,000 cubic feet per minute between the hours of 4 p. m. and 
midnight, each day. Another permit, dated December 5, 1901, set 
the rate of flow at 250,000 cubic feet per minute (4,167 cubic feet 
per second) throughout the 24 hours of each day. Upon application 
of the sanitary district, dated December 29, 1902, a permit of the 
Secretary of War was issued on January 17, 1903, granting permis- 
sion to divert 350,000 cubic feet per minute during the closed season 
of navigation and requiring reduction to 250,000 cubic feet per min- 
ute after March 31, 1903. This permit is still in force. 

Wishing to construct the Calumet-Sag Canal and divert Lake 
Michigan water through it, thereby reversing the current in the Cal- 
umet River, the Sanitary District on November 28, 1906, made appli- 
cation to the Secretary of War. On March 14, 1907, the petition was 
denied. Another similar application was made June 27, 1910. 
Thereupon the Secretary of War, on June 30, 1910, granted a permit 
to complete the canal and appurtenant works, provided "that the 
amount of water withdrawn from Lake Michigan through the Chi- 
cago and Calumet Rivers together shall not exceed the total amount 
of 250,000 cubic feet per minute (4,167 cubic feet per second) already 
authorized to be withdrawn through the Chicago River alone." 

Meantime, on September 11, 1907, the Secretary of War issued a 
permit to connect the North Shore Canal with Lake Michigan at 



182 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

Wilmette and abstract water from the lake through the same, pro- 
vided "that the total diversion of water from Lake Michigan through 
the Chicago River into the Illinois River shall be no greater than 
already authorized by past War Department permits." 

On February 5, 1912, the Sanitary District filed with the Secretary 
of War an application for an " enlargement " of the permit of May 8, 
1899, as modified by subsequent permits, to embrace a flow through 
both the Chicago and Calumet Rivers not to exceed 10,000 cubic feet 
per second. This petition was denied in a reply dated January 8, 
1913, which went into the subject to considerable length and which 
was prepared only after extended hearings at which opposition was 
raised by important interests in the United States and Canada. 

Recently the Sanitary District has endeavored to get Congress to 
pass a bill authorizing a diversion of 12,000 cubic feet per second, but 
without success. 

Case of the United States v. Sanitary District of Chicago. — On 
March 23, 1908, the Attorney General of the United States caused to 
be filed in the United States Circuit Court, Northern District of 
Illinois, Eastern Division, a bill of complaint, No. 29019, seeking to 
enjoin the Sanitary District of Chicago from constructing the Calu- 
met-Sag Canal, diverting through it the waters of Calumet River or 
Lake Michigan and reversing the current in Calumet River. 

It was alleged by the Government that these acts would lessen, 
impede, and obstruct navigation in the navigable Calumet River, 
and would lower the level of Lake Michigan and thus decrease its 
navigability, and therefore were unlawful under section 10 of the 
river and harbor appropriation act of March 3, 1899, because they 
had neither been authorized by Congress nor recommended by the 
Chief of Engineers, United States Army, and approved by the Sec- 
retary of War. 

The respondent answered, denying or belittling each allegation, de- 
nying that the Calumet River was navigable within the meaning of 
the term, or that diverting water from Lake Michigan would lower 
its level, or that the act of March 3, 1899, was applicable or even a 
constitutional or valid enactment. At the same time the respondent 
claimed the project would benefit navigation; that State law required 
it to carry out the project; that it was the only authorized agency 
for providing the needed drainage and sewerage, and the proposed 
method was the only lawful one under State enactment ; that it made 
application to the Secretary of War for a permit only as a mere 
matter of comity ; and that the old Illinois and Michigan canal laws 
constituted authorization by Congress. 

This answer was filed March 23, 1908. 

Evidence of the complainant was taken from February 15, 1909, to 
July 8, 1909. The defendant proceeded to again open negotiations 
with the War Department and did not for a time take testimony on its 
own behalf. The Government testimony was directed to the questions 
of the effect of the diversion upon the navigable capacity of the lakes 
and their connecting waters, and the resulting injury to the interests 
of navigation. When, finally, on May 31 and June 1, 1911, the de- 
fendant took testimony, it was not directed toward meeting the testi- 
mony of the Government witnesses, but rather to establishing the de- 
sirability of the project from a sanitary standpoint and to showing 
that while there were other efficient methods for the disposal of the 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 183 

sewage of the Calumet district, the proposed dilution method was the 
cheapest. Thereupon the case rested while the defendant again nego- 
tiated with the Secretary of War. On March 18, 1913, the defendant 
renewed taking its evidence. 

On October 6, 1913, because of the refusal of the defendant to com- 
ply with the terms of the permit of the Secretary of War respecting 
the diversion through Chicago River, the Attorney General caused 
another bill, equity No. 114, to be filed in the same court, praying that 
the defendant be enjoined from diverting more than 4,167 cubic feet 
of water per second from Lake Michigan through Chicago -River. 

It was averred that Congress had never authorized any diversion 
through Chicago River, and that the diversion recommended by the 
Chief of Engineers and permitted by the Secretary of War was lim- 
ited to 4,167 cubic feet per second; that the diversion greatly ex- 
ceeded this amount and was therefore unlawful under section 10 of 
the rivers and harbors act of March 3, 1899. It was further held that 
the defendant by this unauthorized diversion modified and altered the 
Chicago River, and also lowered all the Great Lakes except Superior, 
and all the outflow rivers, injuring them and obstructing navigation. 

The Sanitary District answered denying that it asked for lake water 
or other than Chicago River water, that its diversion exceeded 4,167 
cubic feet per second, that it had or would lower lake levels, that it 
injured navigation, or that permission from the Secretary of War was 
necessary. It claimed that its works were required under the police 
power of the State of Illinois by the sanitary district act of May 29, 
1889 ; that the works planned would completely care for the necessary 
sewage and drainage ; that they provided the only method of keeping 
sewage out of the lake and preserving the drinking water pure ; and 
that this exercise of police power was paramount to any Federal au- 
thority. It claimed further that a diversion of 10,000 cubic feet per 
second was necessary to keep flood waters out of Lake Michigan ; that 
the diversion was absolutely necessary to the health of the people; 
that because of the very low watershed divide and the very large 
population Chicago's case was very unlike that of any other lake city ; 
that $82,000,000 had been spent on the work while the United States 
knew of the State's action and yet did not protest ; that the United 
States had cooperated to the extent of spending $1,000,000 on the im- 
provement of the Chicago River ; that it had indicated its approval by 
many investigations and in reports of its officials ; that in the case of 
the United States v. Economy Light & Power Co. it had held that the 
State, by diversions from Chicago River and Lake Michigan, had 
made the navigability of the Des Plaines River an accomplished fact ; 
that Government records show that the full lowering claimed by the 
Government could be compensated at an expense of $5,000,000 or less ; 
that the lake levels had been lowered by the act of the United States, 
of Canada, and of private persons; that the United States had no 
right to limit the diversion ; and that it would cost about $300,000,000 
for some other method of caring for the sewage and water supply, 
which was prohibitive because of the constitutional debt limit, and 
which could not provide a method as satisfactory or efficient, and that 
$82,000,000 already expended would be practically wasted. 

The two suits were consolidated and heard as one, and the taking 
of evidence, begun on March 18, 1913, was continued until its final 
completion on December 19, 1914. Altogether, a large number of ex- 



184 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

pert witnesses was called on each side. The arguments of counsel on 
the law and facts were presented in 1915. The decision of the dis- 
trict court has not been rendered. 1 

It developed in the testimony that the defendant's witnesses did 
not deny the lowering of lake and river levels or injury to naviga- 
tion, but belittled them. The controversy was over the extent of the 
lowering, held by the defendant to be only about 60 to 80 per cent 
as great as by the complainant, and the amount of the damage to 
navigation was held by the defendant to be much less than by the 
complainant. Admission was made that the diversion had for years 
greatly exceeded 4,167 cubic feet per second. 

It was also admitted that sections 9 and 10 of the river and harbor 
act of March 3, 1899, were constitutional. Inasmuch as construction 
of the drainage canal was commenced September 3, 1892, and was 
nearly complete on March 3, 1899, the defendant argues that this act 
could not be applied. The complainant points out that sections 9 
and 10 were mainly corroborative of section 10 of the river and 
harbor act of September 19, 1890, which was passed prior to the com- 
mencement of construction of the drainage canal and constitutes all 
needed authority in the case. The Sanitary District points out that it 
is empowered and required to dispose of the sewage by dilution under 
the sanitary district act of the State of Illinois, passed May 29, 1889, 
prior to both river and harbor acts noted above. The Government 
shows that, although the sanitary district act was passed May 29, 
1889, nothing pertaining to the construction of the canal was accom- 
plished until after September 19, 1890. 

In the testimony the defendant claims the financial burden caused 
the district by a strict limitation to a diversion of 4,167 cubic feet 
per second would be approximately $250,000,000. 

Jurisdiction of Federal Government. — It appears that the juris- 
diction of the Federal courts and legislature over the question of 
diversion of water through the drainage canal arises from three con- 
stitutional considerations, namely, that the Federal Government is 
the only agency that can deal with questions of foreign relations; 
that the Federal Government has to deal with disputes and damage 
claims between different States; and that Congress has jurisdiction 
over the maintenance and improvement of navigable waterways. 
The diversion of water at Chicago affects the regimen of the Missis- 
sippi River and increases flood heights in 7 States, all of which have 
spent money for flood protection, changing conditions in about 1,000 
miles of navigable channel in the Mississippi and its branches, much 
of which has been improved by the Federal Government. This di- 
version also has an adverse effect on the depths of the St. Marys, St. 
Clair, Detroit, Niagara, and St. Lawrence Rivers, which are all 
navigable streams improved by Federal aid, on the depths of five 
great Government ship locks, and on the depths in more than 100 
harbors and channels on the Great Lakes which are dredged and 
maintained by the Federal Goverment. It has reduced the depths on 
the sills of the Lockport and Oswego locks of^the New York State 
Barge Canal and has injured local harbor improvements in seven 
States. Similar damage has been done to a score of the Canadian 
harbors, to the three great Canadian ship canals, and to the St. 

1 District judge rendered an opinion June 19, 1920, decreeing that the Sanitary Dis- 
trict he enjoined from diverting more water than authorized by the War Department. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 185 

Lawrence Kiver where it runs through Canadian territory. These 
many and intricate matters of interstate and international impor- 
tance can not justly be dealt with by the State of Illinois alone, but 
are proper subjects to be handled by the National Government. 

The future. — The greatest single factor in creating Chicago's sani- 
tary troubles has not been her geographical position, nor the nature 
of her soil, nor the presence of the packing-house wastes. It is the 
unprecedentedly great and sustained growth of the city that has 
repeatedly frustrated all solutions. - If this growth continues, the 
drainage canal will become an inadequate sewer just as the Illinois & 
Michigan Canal did 40 years ago. By 1950 the sanitary district 
may be reasonably expected to contain 5,000,000 people, while 
6,000,000 or 7,000,000 or even more would not be beyond the bounds of 
possibility. If this happens, the thickly inhabited urban region 
will very likely spread to the south and west, and the sanitary dis- 
trict will have to be extended to cover nearly all of Cook County 
and the eastern third of Du Page County. The ultimate possible 
population of the territory centering on the Chicago Kiver, whose 
sewage must be kept out of Lake Michigan, exceeds 15,000,000 in 
Illinois, with perhaps 10,000,000 more in Indiana. 

The legal rate of dilution which the sanitary district is required 
to maintain is 3 \ cubic feet per second for each 1,000 inhabitants. 
That would require a discharge of 8,670 cubic feet per second to 
serve the present population if the Calumet-Sag Canal is not in opera- 
tion, and 9,220 cubic feet per second, including the Calumet district. 
The total capacity of the canal, at its usually estimated value of 
14,000 cubic feet per second, would afford the legal dilution for 
the sewage of 4,200,000 people. If the district be granted the use of 
14,000 cubic feet per second, in 20 or 30 years it must come back 
and ask for more in order to continue extending the dilution method. 
To supply the legal dilution for a population of 15,000,000 would 
require 50,000 cubic feet per second. This is far in excess of the 
present capacity of the Illinois Valley. It would add to the floods 
of the Mississippi, and would so lower the Great Lakes and their 
connecting waters as to require a complete readjustment of the whole 
Lake system of navigation. 

It is evident that dilution by means of the Chicago Drainage Canal 
can not be considered as a permanent solution of the sanitary prob- 
lems of the district. On the other hand the great convenience of 
the present system and the fact that some hundred millions of dollars 
have already been spent on it are points on the other side that should 
be taken into account. The fact is that this question is one that 
can not properly be decided by the uncompromising victory of one 
or the other of the conflicting interests involved. It should rather 
be settled by Congress from the point of view of the greatest value 
to the whole country. The 13 States interested, the Dominion 
of Canada, the City and Sanitary District of Chicago, the shipping 
interests of the Great Lakes, the water-power interests, should each 
be allowed to present their case, and every effort be made to safe- 
guard the interests of each with due regard to the rights and neces- 
sities of the others. Without going into details it may be said that the 
final decision might well contain the following elements: (1) The 
Sanitary District to be allowed the use of such water as may be found 
necessary to dispose of by dilution the sewage now entering the 



186 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Chicago River, and to prevent any flow from the Chicago River into 
the lake during storms. (2) Works to be built on the rivers of 
the Great Lakes system to compensate for the lowering of water 
levels due to this diversion. These works to be designed and built 
jointly by the United States and Canada and paid for by the Sanitary 
District of Chicago. (3) The Sanitary District to be prohibited 
absolutely from any further diversion, regardless of increase in popu- 
lation, and directed to proceed forthwith to formulate a compre- 
hensive scheme of purification, and to proceed with its installation 
in order that any effluent discharged into the Des Plaines or Illinois 
Rivers can be sent down the valley without nuisance or danger even 
though the dilution obtained is much less than 3^ cubic feet per 
second per thousand of population. (4) The diversion to be so effected 
as not to hinder navigation in the Chicago River. (5) The question 
of the Sag Canal to have special consideration, thought being given 
to the future needs of Gary, Indiana Harbor, Hammond, and the 
other towns in Indiana on the Calumet drainage. Diversion through 
the Calumet- Sag Canal to be allowed only if a comprehensive scheme 
can be devised which will protect the purity of Lake Michigan in 
spite of spring floods or summer thunderstorms. (6) The pollu- 
tion of lake waters by ships to be prevented. (7) A fair license fee 
per cubic foot of water per second diverted to be paid the Federal 
Government. 

2. BLACK RIVER CANAL. 

The Great Lakes drainage system contains no less than 18 streams 
bearing the name " Black River " or " Black Creek." The Black 
River considered here rises northwest of Port Sanilac, Mich., about 
11 miles west of Lake Huron, flows south, passes through the city of 
Port Huron, and enters the St. Clair River about 2| miles below the 
foot of Lake Huron. Its length is about 65 miles, and it drains about 
450 square miles of territory. During the spring freshets the dis- 
charge of this river amounts to several thousand cubic feet per sec- 
ond, but during the summer months there is practically no flow. 

The sewage from a large part of Port Huron is discharged into 
this river, including very foul wastes from a sulphite pulp mill. 
Formerly, during the summer months, the lower part of the river 
became a stagnant cesspool extending through the heart of the city. 
The unsightly appearance and extremely offensive odor of the stream 
constituted an intolerable nuisance. 

To remedy these conditions the city constructed a canal from Lake 
Huron to a point on the river above the city. Through this channel 
there now flows a constant current of water, preventing stagnation 
in the lower reach of the river. The canal leaves Lake Huron at a 
point about If miles above Fort Gratiot Light, and runs directly to 
the nearest bend of the river, a distance of about 5,800 feet. It hits 
the river 4J miles above its mouth. The canal has a bottom width of 
25 feet with side slopes of approximately L| tQ 1. The average depth 
of water is 6 feet. The fall from the head of the canal to the mouth 
of Black River averages about 1.25 feet, which is approximately one- 
quarter of the total fall of the St. Clair River. The maximum fall 
is said to be about 2J feet. This fall occurs almost entirely in the 
canal itself. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 187 

The mean discharge is reported to be^ about 400 cubic feet per sec- 
ond, and the maximum about twice as much. Construction of the 
canal was commenced in 1901 and completed in 1912. The cost was 
about $125,000. The upper end of the canal is frequently partly 
blocked by sand and gravel from Lake Huron and requires consid- 
erable dredging to keep it clear. Aside from this difficulty the opera- 
tion of the canal has been entirely successful and the results desired 
have been obtained. 

The effect of this diversion is treated briefly in Section G of this 
report. The principle involved is important, but the actual effect is 
very slight. 

Photographs Nos. 50 and 51 show, respectively, the head of the 
Black River Canal and the mouth of Black River. 

3. PROPOSED ERIE AND ONTARIO SANITARY CANAL. 

The proposed powder, ship, and sanitary canal of the Erie & 
Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. has been described in section A of this 
report. It is understood that the sewage of Lackawanna and other 
southern and eastern suburbs of Buffalo will be discharged directly 
into this canal. Buffalo Creek is to be reversed, and its flow, to- 
gether with the 4,000 or 5,000 cubic feet per second admitted to the 
branch canal at Black Rock, is expected to cause a constant inflow 
of Lake Erie water into Buffalo Harbor. All the sewage will then 
go down the canals and none down the river except a very little 
through the Black Rock ship lock. The sewage of Black Rock, 
North Buffalo, and Tonawanda will discharge directly into the 
branch canal. North Tonawanda would probably be connected with 
the main canal by a trunk sewer or, possibly, would discharge its 
sewage into the barge canal. Intercepting sewers would be re- 
quired along the river front of both the Tonawandas to collect sew- 
age now discharged into the river. The estimate submitted by the 
company provides for rough screening of the sewage before it en- 
ters the canal, and in some of the prospectuses an offer is made to 
give it whatever further treatment it may require to prevent form- 
ing dangerous or offensive conditions in Lake Ontario. 

The proposed diversion of water is 26,000 cubic feet per second. 
This is described in the draft of a bill submitted by the company as 
"the use of 20,000 cubic feet of water per second allowed by the 
treaty with Great Britain for power, together with 6,000 cubic feet 
of water per second further allowed by article 5 of said treaty for 
sanitation and navigation." 

The present population of the area to be served by the canal is 
perhaps 600,000. Allowing for future growth, 6,000 cubic feet per 
second is about the quantity that would be required to dilute the 
sewage from this district and carry it away without creating any 
serious nuisance. Under the proposed scheme, when 20,000 cubic 
feet per second have been diverted for power development all the 
sewage of this region could be properly diluted and carried away 
by the same water. In fact, the dilution would be more than three 
times as great as is usually considered necessary. To divert 6,000 
cubic feet per second additional for " sanitary purposes " is a pro- 
posal of doubtful justification. Whether or not it would be possible 



188 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

without violating the provisions of the treaty is a question of law. 
It appears contrary to the intent of the treaty. 

That the water of the Niagara River is now contaminated and 
polluted by sewage can not be denied. Without purification it is not 
fit to drink. The city of Buffalo gets its water supply from an in- 
take which normally receives Lake Erie water with little or no con- 
tamination from Buffalo or Lackawanna sewage. Under unusual 
conditions of winds and currents it may be so contaminated. The 
cities of Tonawanda, North Tonawanda, Lockport, and Niagara 
Falls receive a supply that is seriously polluted. The solution of the 
problem of giving these cities a satisfactory supply can be attempted 
by two different methods. It may be determined, on the one hand, 
to bring the whole 207,000 cubic feet per second of the Niagara River 
water into a pure, safe, potable condition and retain it so. On the 
other hand some pollution, devoid of gross nuisance, may be per- 
mitted, the main effort being directed toward purification of the 300 
or 400 cubic feet of water per second which is pumped to supply 
the cities of the Niagara frontier, including Buffalo. 

The very thorough investigations by the International Joint Com- 
mission have shown conclusively that the water of Lake Erie does 
not afford a safe domestic supply. It is contaminated by the waste 
of the many cities on its shores and of the vast fleet on its waters. 
The rapidly increasing population of both shores of the river and of 
Grand Island adds its pollution to the river waters. After the ut- 
most has been done to exclude the sewage of Buffalo and its suburbs 
from the river, the water will still need treatment before it is fit 
for use. The solution of the problem by the first method will neces- 
sarily be incomplete. 

While the first method tries to maintain the waters of an immense 
river, draining a settled area of 276,000 square miles, in a pure and 
potable condition, the second method applies intensive methods of 
purification to the small quantity of water which needs to be pure. 
Only about one six-hundredths of the flow of the river need be 
treated. That this may surely and economically be accomplished is 
abundantly demonstrated by the experience of the city of Niagara 
Falls. 

Niagara Falls was formerly supplied by the Western New York 
Water Co., with untreated Niagara River water taken from near the 
American shore. The supply was badly polluted by the sewage of 
Buffalo, the Tonawandas, La Salle, and Echota. The dangerous na- 
ture of the water was notorious, and intelligent people depended 
largely on wells and bottled spring water for their drinking water. 
Nevertheless, typhoid fever was endemic to a marked degree. The 
typhoid death rate varied from 93 to 224 per 100,000 and was one of 
the highest in the United States. As the city is visited by more than 
1,000,000 sightseers every year, it served as a focus of infection for 
spreading the disease over the entire country. In 1912 the city 
opened a municipal waterworks with mechanical filters, and soon 
after the Western New York Water Co. began- chlorinating its sup- 
ply. The typhoid rate fell at once, and since then has been only 
about one-tenth as great as before. Table No. 12 shows the death 
rates due to typhoid fever since 1903, expressed as deaths per 100,000 
of population : 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 189 



Table No. 12. — Typlwid fever death rate per 100,000 in Niagara Falls, N. Y., 

1903 to 1917. 



1903. 
1904. 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 
1911. 



212 
153 
224 



148 

96 

93 

102 

167 



1912 * 28 

1913 25 

1914 10 

1915 

1916 

1917 * 



11 
10 



Mean of 6 years 14 



Mean of 8 years 149 

The International Joint Commission has made a very extended 
and thorough study of the pollution of boundary waters, including 
Niagara River. The commission recommends sewage treatment by 
Buffalo and other cities along the river to an extent which will abate 
present nuisances and greatly lessen the dangers from pollution, 
holding that purification of water supplies will still be required, the 
sewage-purification processes providing a " margin of safety " for 
the water-supply purification works. The report of the commission 
was, in part, as follows : 

The reference specifically calls for consideration by the commission, of drain- 
age canals as a possible way or means of remedying or preventing the trans- 
boundary effect of pollution. The only suggestion that has been made before 
the commission of a drainage canal project is that promoted by the Erie & 
Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. This company was organized primarily for power 
purposes, but among the objects in its application for incorporation is remedy- 
ing the pollution of the Niagara River by the construction of a canal starting 
at or near the mouth of Smokes Creek in the city of Lackawanna and thence 
running through a w r ell-settled country to Lake Ontario. It is proposed that 
the canal should be used free of charge by the cities of Lackawanna, Buffalo, 
Tonawanda, North Tonawanda, Niagara Falls (United States), and Lockport, 
and by other municipalities and communities on the United States side of the 
Niagara River to carry off their sewage and storm flows, which are now dis- 
charged into Lake Erie and the Niagara River, provided each city or town 
make its own connection with the canal without expense to the company. The 
compnny applied to the Secretary of War for the United States by applica- 
tion dated April 23, 1912, for permission to divert for its purposes 6,000 second- 
feet of water from Lake Erie and the Niagara River. The necessary authority 
for the diversion of this water was denied by the Government of the United 
States, but the company desired to secure from the commission an approval of 
the canal as a feasible solution of the pollution problem in the Niagara River. 
Opportunities were afforded the company to appear before the commission on 
several occasions. The company's president, Mr. Millard F. Bowen ; its counsel, 
Mr. George Clinton, and others on its behalf made at the different sittings able 
and lengthy arguments, and briefs were submitted to the commission contain- 
ing statements of fact and arguments from Messrs. Randolph, Clinton, Bowen, 
and Shiras in support of the scheme. Quite a large amount cf evidence was 
taken, as will appear on reference to the records of the commission. The finan- 
cial and sanitary features of the project did not, however, appear to have 
been sufficiently investigated. The plans and data submitted were conse- 
quently referred to the consulting engineer for further investigation and report. 
His report was decidedly adverse to the undertaking for two principal reasons: 
(1) It proposed to receive sewage in its raw condition into the canal, thus 
creating a large open sewer. A condition of serious menace would therefore 
obtain throughout its length, and if the sewage were allowed to pass into Lake 
Ontario conditions there would be at least no less objectionable than they are 
at present. (2) The treatment required to prevent nuisance in such a canal 
would necessarily be more complete and correspondingly expensive than treat- 
ment required for the protection of the Niagara River, a result due to the com- 



1 Filter installed. 



190 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER- 

paratively small volume of diluting water available in the canal and the con- 
sequent necessity for thorough treatment of the sewage by expensive oxidizing 
methods. These reasons would apply with much greater force in the future. 
Buffalo and the towns below are rapidly growing. Should their combined 
population reach a total of 1,000,000, the diluting power of the diverted water 
would be so inadequate that during ttie summer months the waters of the canal 
would be devoid of oxygen, dark in color, and foul smelling. One nuisance 
would be abated by the creation of a much greater nuisance, which could only 
be corrected by the most intense sewage purification. The commission, after 
full consideration of all the features of the project, is of the opinion that be- 
sides being objectionable on other grounds it is inadvisable as a sanitary 
measure. 

On the general question of drainage canals as a method of sewage disposal 
the commission is unable to express any opinion, as each case must be decided 
upon its merits. Consideration of any scheme involves a study of the amount of 
water available for diversion, the water-carrying capacity of the canal, the 
amount of raw sewage to be discharged into it, the character and cost of treat- 
ment of the sewage to be carried, and the consequent interference with the 
many other interests which may be affected, all of which elements vary accord- 
ing to local circumstances and conditions. 

It thus appears that the proposed sanitary canal will not make 
the Niagara River a safe and satisfactory water supply for the fron- 
tier cities without further treatment by individual communities. The 
studies and estimates in Section F of this report show that a com- 
bined power and ship canal on the La Salle-Lewiston route would 
develop as much power as the proposed sanitary canal, would be a 
much better ship canal, and would be much cheaper. The differ- 
ence in cost of the two canals would be far more than enough to 
provide water purification plants for all the frontier cities. More- 
over, if these cities build such plants, the cost will be borne by the 
people benefited, while under the plan of the Erie & Ontario Sani- 
tary Canal Co. the cost of providing better water for these cities is 
to be added to the price of power and borne by the customers of the 
company. Surely this is an inequitable arrangement. 

The conclusion must be that, considered as a sanitary project, this 
scheme has little to recommend it. Its navigational and power 
aspects are treated in Sections A and F, respectively, of this report. 

4. DIVERSIONS OF CITIES. 



The only remaining diversions of water from the Great Lakes sys- 
tem for sanitary purposes are the diversions of cities bordering the 
Great Lakes and outflow rivers for water supply and sewer flushing. 
The most notable example of flushing is that at Milwaukee, where 
nearly 1,000 cubic feet of water per second is pumped at three pump- 
ing stations to flush the Milwaukee, Menomonee, and Kinnickinnic 
Rivers. In this instance the lake water used in flushing these rivers 
and a few trunk sewers is soon returned to the lake within a few 
miles of the points of diversion. At Chicago the pumpage for water 
supply is about 1,050 cubic feet per second. The experience of sani- 
tary engineers is that practically the full amount of the water supply 
eventually finds its way into the sewers. In the case of Chicago the 
sewage passes down the drainage canal, hence the water supply forms 
a part of the diversion measured at Lockport, and previously dis- 
cussed in this section. The other cities all return their supplies to 
the lakes and connecting waters within a few miles of the point of 
diversion. The quantities are small. At Buffalo the diversion is 









DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 191 

approximately 220 cubic feet per second. At Detroit, the largest lake 
city after Chicago, it amounts on the average to 225 cubic feet per 
second. The effects of all these diversions, except that at Chicago, 
upon lake levels or navigation are absolutely trivial. 

W. S. Richmond. 

Section C. 

DIVERSIONS FOR POWER PURPOSES. 
1. ST. MARYS FALLS CANALS. 

The total diversion of water at Sault Ste. Marie for power develop- 
ment is approximately 43,000 cubic feet per second. At the rapids of 
the St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie there is a head of from IT 
to 21 feet which is available for power development. The mean flow 
of the river, including the ship canals and power canals, is about 
75,000 cubic feet per second. It thus appears that a little more than 
half of the river flow is used to develop power. The total power pro- 
duction averages about 54,750 horsepower. The compensating works 
which prevent this use of water from lowering Lake Superior unduly 
are described in Section G of this report, which deals with lake levels. 

There are three power plants at Sault Ste. Marie, one on the Ca- 
nadian side and two on the American. The location of each is shown 
on the map on plate No. 3. 

Government plants. — The United States Government power plant 
is located in the rapids on the American side abreast of the west end 
of the fourth lock. A small plant was first constructed by the Edison 
Sault Light & Power Co. in 1887, and was extended from time to time. 
It was located a little south of the present site. In 1906 the present 
plant was built, extending farther into the rapids than the earlier 
one, and estimated to divert about 1,400 cubic feet per second. 

The plant was acquired by the United States in 1912 and leased to 
the Edison Sault Electric Co. by the Secretary of War under date of 
June 25, 1912. Under the terms of this lease the plant was enlarged 
in 1915-16 and another unit added, making a total installation of 
about 2,575 horsepower. The lease contemplates a final development 
of 5,335 horsepower over and above the power required by the United 
States for lighting and operating locks and other purposes. 

The headrace of this plant is formed by a dike about 2,700 feet 
long extending downstream from one of the piers of the International 
Bridge at the head of the rapids, and is closed at its lower end by a 
pier, sluice gates, and the power house. The total length of this head- 
race is about 2,100 feet, its width is about 700 feet, and its depth 
varies from 2 to 10 feet. The gross head varies from 17 to 21 feet, 
the head at the power house ranging from 17 to 19J feet. A tailrace 
approximately 100 feet wide leads downstream from the power house 
about 1,700 feet to a point near the foot of the rapids. 

The power house contains five units. Four of these are 71-inch 
Sampson turbines, each with vertical shaft direct connected to a 450- 
kilowatt generator delivering three-phase alternating current. The 
fifth unit is a 60-inch Allis-Chalmers vertical-shaft turbine direct 
connected to an alternator. There are also two small turbines, rated 
at 110 horsepower each, which drive the exciters. The average power 



192 DIVERSION OF WATEK FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

developed is 750 horsepower. The water consumed is 1,030 cubic 
feet per second, of which 500 cubic feet per second is estimated to be 
wasted through the sluices or lost by leakage through the dike. 

Part of the power is used by the United States for lighting and 
operating locks and the remainder carries a miscellaneous light and 
power load in the city of Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. The contem- 
plated ultimate development of 5,335 horsepower over and above the 
power required by the United States will probably require a diver- 
sion of somewhat more than 4,000 cubic feet per second. 

Michigan Northern Power Go. — The plant of the Michigan 
Northern Power Co. is on the American shore about a mile below 
the locks and is supplied with water by a canal running from near 
the western entrance of the ship canal. This canal or headrace is 
about 12,000 feet long. The downstream portion has a trapezoidal 
cross section 162 feet wide on the bottom, 200 feet wide at the water 
surface, and about 24 deet deep, lined with timber. The upper part 
is a rock cut of equivalent size. The gross head varies from 17 to 21 
feet. The net head at the power house at present is about 16 feet. 

The power house contains 79 pairs of turbines, 15 pairs of 34J-inch 
and 64 pairs of 33-inch, direct connected by horizontal shafts to 
small electric generators. The average amount of water used is 
30,000 cubic feet per second and the average power output is 
35,000 horsepower. Part of this power is used for street railway 
operation, but the bulk of it is used in the manufacture of calcium 
carbide in the nearby plant of the Union Carbide Co. 

This plant was built by the Michigan Lake Superior Power Co. in 
1898-1902. About 8,500 cubic feet per second were used in 1906. In 
1909, 35 out of the 42 units installed were generally in use. About 
12,000 cubic feet of water per second was being consumed, and the 
average output was about 11,000 horsepower. In 1913 the name was 
changed to Michigan Northern Power Co., and under terms of a 
lease executed by the Secretary of War May 28, 1914, the company 
completed its plant by the addition of 37 new units. No further ex- 
tension of the plant is contemplated, but the amount of water used 
may be increased by perhaps 10 per cent. 

Great Lakes Power Co. — The plant of the Great Lakes Power Co. 
is in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, about 500 feet north of the eastern 
gates of the Canadian lock. The headrace leads from the bay north 
of the upper entrance to the Canadian ship canal. It is a little more 
than 2,000 feet long, 4,500 including channel through the bay, and is 
now being enlarged to a width of 400 feet and depth of 12 feet. The 
gross head varies from 17 to 21 feet, the head at the power house 
averaging about 18 feet. 

The old power house contains three old 51-inch 350-horsepower 
McCormick turbines which are connected to dynamos by gears. The 
new power house contains 24 modern vertical-shaft hydroelectric 
units. These are Allis-Chalmers turbines rated at 825 horsepower 
each. The pulp mill contains 12 units, each consisting of five 31-inch 
American runners mounted on a horizontal shaft and rated at 1,200 
horsepower. These drive the pulp grinders. The total rated power 
of the installation is approximately 35,000 horsepower at a head of 
18 to 18.5 feet. The average power developed is 19,000 horsepower 
and the average water used is 12,000. cubic feet per second. This 




* 



Photograph No. 45.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 
By-Pass at Lockport, N. Y 




Photograph No. 46.— NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 
Guard Lock No. 72, Old Erie Canal, Hamilton Street, Buffalo, N. Y. 




Photograph No. 47. — ST. LAWRENCE CANALS. 
Waste Weir and Gates at Lock No. 27. 




Photograph Nc. 48. — ST. LAWRENCE CANALS. 
Galop Canal above Iroquois, Ontario. 




Photograph Nc. 49.— ST. LAWRENCE. CANALS. 
Lock No. 24. 




Photograph No. 50.— HEAD OF BLACK RIVER CANAL, LAKE HURON. 




Photograph No. 51. — MOUTH OF BLACK RIVER, PORT HURON, MICH, 




Photograph No. 53.— CANAL OF MICHIGAN NORTHERN POWER CO,,SAULT STE. 

MARIE, MICH. 




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Photograph No. 54.— POWER HOUSE OF SANITARY DISTRICT OF CHICAGO. ILL. 




Photograph No. 55.— SECTOR DAM AT POWER HOUSE OF SANITARY DISTRICT OF 

CHICAGO, ILL. 




Photograph No. 56.— POWER HOUSE AT JOLIET, ILL. , 




Photograph No. 57.— DAM ON ILLINOIS RIVER AT MARSEILLES, ILL. 




Photograph No. 58. — MAIN POWER CANAL AT MARSEILLES, ILL. 




Photograph No. 59. — MILLS AND POWER HOUSES BELOW MARSEILLES DAM. 




Photograph No. 60.— MILLS NEAR LOCK NO. 3, OLD WELLAND CANAL. 




Photograph No. 61.— MILLS NEAR LOCK NO. 2. OLD WELLAND CANAL. 




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DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 193 

power is used for operating a large paper mill and for supplying 
power for a steel plant, city lighting and pumping, and general com- 
mercial purposes. 

This plant was built by the Lake Superior Power Co. in 1896-1901, 
and acquired by the present owners in 1916, since when it has been 
greatly enlarged. It is understood that the present plant is planned 
for the use of about 20,000 cubic feet per second.. 

The power outputs and water consumptions given above are only 
approximate and the gross head is not accurately known, so the 
efficiency of the plants can only be estimated roughly. At the time 
when these figures w^ere compiled the total fall at the Soo was about 
19 feet. Under this head, with 100 per cent efficiency, 1 cubic foot 
of water per second would produce 2.16 horsepower. Table No. 13 
shows the efficiency of the various plants. 

Table No. 13. — Present operation, Scinlt Ste. Marie power plants. 



Plant. 


Water 

used 

(cubic 

feet per 

second). 


Power 
produced 

(horse- 
power). 


Horse- 
power 

per cubic 
foot per 
second. 


Over-all 

effi- 
ciency. 


United States Government 


il,030 
30, 000 
12,000 


750 
35,000 
19, 000 


0.73 
1.17 

1.58 


Per cent. 
34 


Michigan Northern Power Co 


54 


Great Lakes Power Co 


73 






Total or weighted average 


43,030 


54,750 


1.27 


59 







Including 500 cubic feet per second wasted. 



The overall efficiency of the Government plant based on the 530 
cubic feet per second actually passing through its turbines is 65 per 
cent. 

In photograph No. 52 is a rear view of the Government power 
house. No. 53 is of the canal of the Michigan Northern Power Co. 



2. CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. 



Lockport plant. — At the downstream end of the Chicago Drainage 
Canal 6,800 cubic feet of water per second are, on the average, used 
in the production of hydroelectric pow T er. The use of this water is 
secondary and incidental to its primary use in diluting the sewage 
of Chicago under the present disposal system. This water is a por- 
tion of that already reported in Section B as being diverted from 
Lake Michigan for sanitary uses. 

The general location of the power house is shown on plate No. 4. 

After the opening of the Chicago Drainage Canal in 1900, the sani- 
tary district decided to develop the water power which was available 
at its lower end. As the bed of the Des Plaines River has a steep 
slope immediately below the controlling works at Lockport, the canal 
was extended, mainly by rock and earth embankments, 2 miles to the 
present site of the power house, and the lock and spillways beside it, 
which are described in Section A of this report. The channel exten- 
sion has a depth of 24 feet at lowest prevailing stage and a minimum 



27880—21- 



-13 



194 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 

width of 160 feet. The total drop in water surface from Lake Michi- 
gan to the Des Plaines River below the power house is about 45 feet 
at extreme low water in the Des Plaines River. Several feet of head 
are lost in the canal, the loss varying with the volume of flow. In the 
years 1915-1917 the maximum head was 41 feet, the minimum 26, and 
the mean 34.5 feet. The plant began to generate power in December, 
1907. 

The power house contains seven units. Each unit has six 54-inch 
runners placed in pairs on a horizontal shaft submerged in an open 
flume. Access to the bearings is obtained through steel cofferdams or 
manhole shafts extending to the surface. These units run at 163 
revolutions per minute and are rated at 6,000 horsepower each. The 
generators are direct connected to the turbines. They generate three- 
phase alternating current at 6,600 volts, 60 cycles, and are rated at 
4.000 kilowatts each. Each generator has three single-phase trans- 
formers which raise the voltage to 44,000 volts. 

There are three exciters, rated at 350 kilowatts, 250 volts, driven 
by three small turbines. Space is reserved for the installation of one 
more of the large units. 

Most of the power developed is transmitted to Chicago, where it 
carries a large street lighting load and a general commercial load. A 
small amount is distributed at 6,600 volts in the cities of Joliet and 
Lockport. During the year 1917 the average output was 17,900 horse- 
power, the maximum output for one half -hour period being 32,100 
horsepower. The average consumption of water by the power plant 
for the same year was stated by the chief engineer to be 6,850 cubic 
feet per second, the minimum consumption for any half -hour period 
being 2,380 cubic feet per second. 

The cost of the power- development plant, including the 2-mile 
extension of the canal, was a little more than $5,000,000. 

Photograph No. 54 is a downstream view of the power house and 
No. 55 is of the main sector dam beside the power house. Attention is 
also called to Nos. 12 and 15, given previously. 

Joliet plant. — The water passing through the drainage canal power 
house at Lockport is used again by plants at Joliet and Marseilles. 
At Joliet the power house contains 32 turbines of various sizes, from 
48-inch to 68-inch, driving 10 generators having a total rated ca- 
pacity of 3,740 kilowatts. Both alternating and direct current is 
produced and sold for general commercial and lighting loads. The 
average amount of water used is reported to be 5,250 cubic feet per 
second and the average power production 3,350 horse power. The 
dam forms part of the Illinois and Michigan canal system and is 
owned by the State of Illinois. The head varies from 9 to 13 feet, 
averaging about 10 feet. It is understood that the water power is 
leased from the State by the Sanitary District of Chicago. The 
plant formerly was the property of the Economy Light & Power Co. 

The power house is shown on photograph No. 56. A view of the 
dam has been given as photograph No. 16. 

Marseilles plant. — At Marseilles, 111., there is a dam across the 
Illinois River owned by the Marseilles Land & Water Power Co., 
affording a head of about 11 feet. The power is used in a number of 
plants, partly to generate electricity and partly in the manufacture 
of coarse grades of paper. Many of the installations are old and of 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 195 

low efficiency. The c&paeity of these plants is such that together 
they use the discharge of the drainage canal and most of the ordi- 
nary floAA T of the Illinois River. The company advertises the produc- 
tion 10,000 horsepower. 

Photographs Nos. 57, 58, and 59 show, respectively, the Marseilles 
Dam, the largest canal, and some of the mills and power houses 
along the river below the dam. 

The three developments described above are the only ones of any 
importance using the water diverted from Lake Michigan through 
the Chicago Drainage Canal. The horse power per cubic foot per 
second obtained at these sites is estimated to be roughly as follows : 

Lockport 2. 5 

Joliet . 6 

Marseilles . 7 

Total 3.8 

The Ernst Board of Engineers proposed for the Illinois and 
Des Plaines Rivers a waterway having nine locks with an aggregate 
low-water lift of 130 feet, including all lifts up to Lake Michigan 
level. Of this total, 116 feet were available for water power. If 
this project was developed and modern hydroelectric plants installed, 
a total of 11 horsepower per cubic foot per second might be obtained. 

Ottawa plant. — In addition to the three plants described, there is 
a very small installation at Ottawa, 111., taking water from a branch 
of the Illinois and Michigan Canal. This plant operates eight hours 
a day, using about 120 cubic feet per second while operating. The 
head is 28.9 feet. The power developed is probably between 200 and 
300 horsepower. The water used may be considered as being fur- 
nished partly by the natural flow of Des Plaines River and partly 
by diversion from Lake Michigan through the drainage canal. As 
already pointed out, the extreme low-water flow of the Des Plaines 
above Joliet is only 7 cubic feet per second. 

3. WELLAND CANAL. 

The diversion from Lake Erie through the Welland Canal for 
power purposes appears to be approximately 3,400 cubic feet per 
second. This is a primary use of the water, as it is diverted from 
the Lake Erie level of the canal before having been used in any man- 
ner for the benefit of navigation. In fact it may be said that the 
diversion is slightly detrimental to navigation in that it increases the 
small current in the canal. 

On plate No. 6 is a map of the Welland Canal, on which is indi- 
cated the power plant at De Cew Falls, and showing the old canal 
from Thorold to Port Dalhousie, along which are located all the 
other power plants. 

A description of power development from the waters of the Wel- 
land Canal falls naturally into two parts. The one treats of the 
diversion of the De Cew Falls plant of the Hamilton Cataract Power, 
Light & Traction Co. This is a large modern plant, with a capacity 
of over 50,000 horsepower. Its head is by far the greatest of any 
plant now using the waters of the Great Lakes. The other part treats 
of the remaining plants. These are many in number, but of small 
individual importance, developing 10 to 2,000 horsepower each under 
heads of from 8 to 23 feet. Most of the installations are old and in- 



196 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

efficient and many run only intermittently. Their total capacity 
does not amount to 15,000 horsepower. 

De Cew Falls plant. — The De Cew Falls plant is owned by the 
Hamilton Cataract Power, Light & Traction Co. (Ltd.) , which is con- 
trolled through stock ownership by the Dominion Power & Transmis- 
sion Co. (Ltd.). The latter company controls all the electric service 
companies in the vicinity of Hamilton. 

The water used by this company leaves Lake Erie at Port Col- 
borne and flows down the Welland Canal to Allanburg, a distance 
of about 16 miles. Here it enters the " old " Welland Canal and 
shortly thereafter leaves that through the " Government measuring 
weir." Thence it passes through gates into a chain of shallow ponds 
about 4 miles long, extending to the top of the Niagara escarpment, 
in the vicinity of De Cew Falls, which is on a small branch of Twelve- 
mile Creek. At this point is a small fore bay with a spillway and 
rackhouse. From the rackhouse the water is carried down the slope 
of the escarpment in seven long steel penstocks, which are laid on 
the surface of the ground and covered with wooden housings. The 
oldest one is 7^ feet in diameter and the others are 6 feet each. 

The power house at the foot of the escarpment contains two groups 
of machinery. The older group consists of four horizontal-shaft 
units, all supplied by the 7^-foot penstock. Two of these have tur- 
bines of Italian make, each driving a 2,000-kilowatt Westinghouse 
generator. The third has a Voith turbine, and its generator is rated 
at 1,000 kilowatts. The fourth unit is smaller, being a turbine- 
driven exciter. The newer group consists of six units, each supplied 
by one of the 6-foot penstocks. Eacli consists of a Voith turbine, 
rated at 8,000 horsepower, and a 6,000-kilovolt-ampere generator, 
built by the Canadian General Electric Co. Each turbine has a 
double runner on a horizontal shaft in a single scroll case and double 
draft tubes. Each unit is controlled by a Voith governor operating 
wicket gates. Each penstock is provided with a synchronous relief 
valve actuated by the governor and installed on a short by-pass ex- 
tending from the penstock at the scroll-case connection to one of the 
draft tubes. A similar by-pass to the other draft tube is pro- 
vided with a pressure-bursting plate relief. The current is generated 
at 2,400 volts, 3-phase, 66| cycles per second, a very unusual fre- 
quency. 

From the draft tubes the water flows through a tail-bay into 
Twelvemile Creek, which it follows for 2J miles to the old Welland 
Canal level, just below Lock No. 8, at St. Catherines. 

Most of the power is sold in Hamilton and its neighborhood. It 
is transmitted by three transmission lines with steel towers. The 
transmission voltage is 50,000 volts, and the distance is about 35 
miles. In Hamilton is a large steam station, which helps carry the 
peak loads. At present the daytime load of this plant is about 50,000 
horsepower. At night it is approximately 45,000 horsepower, and 
on Sundays it is somewhat less. 

The gross head on this plant is variously given at 260, 263, 264, 
and 268 feet. The most authoritative statement is probably that of 
Water Powers of Canada, published in 1911 by the Canadian con- 
servation commission. On page 90 is the statement that this plant 
is operated " under a static head of 263 feet, and under full load 
each penstock has an operating head of 256 feet." Presumably this 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 197 

means the net head on the turbine. From tests of fairly similar 
machines of the Hydraulic Power Co. at Niagara Falls it would 
appear that the combined efficiency of the turbine and generators at 
full load is probably about 82 per cent. The power produced would 
then be 23.8 horsepower per cubic foot per second. An output of 
50,000 horsepower would thus require a diversion of 2,100 cubic feet 
per second. 

This company possesses five leases, which together entitle it to a 
continuous use of 1,160 cubic feet per second. Out of this quantity 
it must furnish the city of St. Catherines its water supply, estimated 
at 25 cubic feet per second. The leases are as follows : 

Ontario Government: Rent per annum. 

Dec. 31, 1902. 700 cubic feet per second $21,000 

Mar. 31, 1906, 300 cubic feet per second__' 9, 000 

Robert Cooper lease, Dec. 15, 1909, 100 cubic feet per second 413 

Townsend grant, date unknown, 10 cubic feet per second None. 

City of St. Catherines' lease, date unknown, 50 cubic feet per second 500 

It appears that the company diverts at least 940 cubic feet per 
second more than is covered by the leases. 

Construction of the plant was begun in 1898 and completed about 
1908. This is some time before May 13. 1910, the date on which the 
boundary waters treaty was proclaimed. It appears from official 
reports and letters, however, that the plant was not operating at full 
capacity in 1910 or earlier, and that a substantial increase in the 
diversion has been made since that date. 

Wetland River plants. — Of the water that enters the Welland Canal 
from Lake Erie a certain amount is spilled into the Welland River, 
part at Welland, and the rest at Port Robinson. Part of this water 
is or has been used for power development. The 1911 report of the 
commission of conservation lists one development of 25 horsepower 
at Port Robinson, and two developments at Welland, one of 60 horse- 
power and the other of 100 horsepower. In 1918 the amount spilled 
at these two places was estimated by the Canadian engineers to be 
440 cubic feet per second. 

Plants along old canal. — About a mile above Thorold, in the side 
of a short level of the present canal between the guard gates and Lock 
25, is a submerged outlet through which a regulated flow is permitted 
to escape into the old canal. The lower level of this sluice is shown in 
photograph No. 23. From this point to Port Dalhousie along the old 
canal there are 25 locks, with a total fall of about 320 feet. Power 
installations exist at nearly every lock, and there are several on a 
raceway at Merritton, which is known as the " hydraulic raceway." 
In 1905 there were 34 leases of water rights along this canal still in 
existence. Most of these were very old, and had stipulated rentals 
based on a formerly existing flow of water far less than that then used. 
In several cases either the rent was not being paid or else some other 
condition of the lease was not being complied with. The old canal 
was practically not used at all for navigation, and was being main- 
tained by the Province for the benefit of the water-power interests, 
at a cost exceeding $20,000 per annum, while the revenue from rentals 
to power users was less than $9,000 per annum. In 1911 there were 
24 developments along this reach listed by the conservatism com- 
mission. 

In 1918 a hasty reconnoissance showed a large number of small 
water powers. Some were operating regularly, some were apparently 



198 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

abandoned, while others appeared to have suffered destruction of the 
plant by fire. There seemed to be 18 developments, used by 13 con- 
cerns. The Canadian authorities were evidently without authentic 
record of the present owners of the leases or of details of the develop- 
ments. They estimated the total flow through the sluiceway above 
Thorold at 800 cubic feet per second. Below Lock 3 this flow is aug- 
mented by the 2,100 cubic feet per second or thereabout which comes 
down Twelvemile Creek from the DeCew Falls plant. The entire 
flow of 2,900 cubic feet per second is available for power development 
at Lock 2 at St. Catharines and at Lock 1 at Port Dalhousie. The 
total installed power is perhaps 12.000 horsepower. Inasmuch as 
29,000 horsepower or more could be developed continuously with this 
diversion, it would seem that more than 50 per cent of the value of the 
diversion was wasted. 

To gather data for a detailed report on all of these installations 
would have been a slow and expensive procedure. In view of the 
relatively small volume of the diversion involved it was considered 
that such a report would not have a value commensurate with the 
labor and expense of compiling it. 

Photograph No. 25 shows the point of discharge of Twelvemile 
Creek into the old Welland Canal. No. 24 shows Lock 3 of the old 
Welland. No. 60 is of mills developing power near Lock 3. No. 61 
is of mills near Lock 2. 

Table No. 14. — Estimated diversions of the Welland Canal, in cubic, feet per 

second. 

Into the Welland River 440 

Down the old canal 800 

To the DeCew Falls plant 2, 125 

Total available for power 3, 365 

For navigation only 1, 100 

Total 4,465 

The estimated diversions of the Welland Canal are given in table 
No. 14. Of this about 40 cubic feet per second comes by way of the 
Port Maitland feeder from the Grand River, a tributary of Lake 
Erie. The remaining 4,425 comes directly from Lake Erie. Four 
hundred and forty cubic feet per second enters the Niagara River 
above the falls by way of the Welland River (Chippawa Creek). 
The remaining 4,025 enters Lake Ontario at Port Dalhousie. 

4. NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANAL. 

The present diversion through the New York State Barge Canal 
of Niagara River waters for power purposes is approximately 500 
cubic feet per second, this diversion being covered by permits from 
the Secretary of War and the New York State superintendent of 
public works. In addition, power is developed at Lockport from 
water by-passed around the locks to feed the lower level from Lock- 
port to Lyons. This quantity varies considerably and may reach a 
maximum of approximately 1,500 cubic feet per second. 

A map showing the barge canal routes is given on plate No. 8. On 
plate No. 6 the location of the route from Niagara River to Lockport 
is shown on a larger scale. A series of photographs, Nos. 29 to 46, in- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 199 

elusive, with descriptive notes beneath, is given by way of illus- 
trating distinctive features of the canal. 

In Section A of this report there has already been given a descrip- 
tion of the New York State Barge Canal, and an expfanation that its 
highest level is at the western end, being at the same elevation as the 
Niagara River at Tonawanda and receiving a supply of water from 
Niagara River at that point. About 500 cubic feet per second is 
diverted into Eighteenmile Creek at Lockport, and on down the 
creek, 12 miles to Lake Ontario at Olcott. Whatever part of the re- 
mainder of the total diversion from Niagara River is not lost by 
evaporation or seepage, or by being spilled over wasteways along the 
route, is eventually discharged down the Oswego River into Lake 
Ontario. 

Power developments at Lockport, N. Y. — At Lockport there are 
three 'conduits or channels through which water may be by-passed 
around the flight of locks, from the upper level to the lower level of 
the barge canal. One is the waterway of the small hydroelectric 
plant situated between the old and new flights of locks. This plant 
belongs to the State and furnishes electric energy for lighting and 
operating the locks. Another is a tunnel on the north side of the 
canal, roughly 8 feet wide, 12 feet high, and 1,600 feet long, extending 
from a point just above the old locks to a gatehouse on the brink of 
the high bank. From there two penstocks convey the water down to 
the wheels in the pulp mill of the United Box Board & Paper Co. 
The tunnel and appurtenances belong to the Hydraulic Race Co. 
The third passage is a tunnel about 15 feet square and 700 feet long, 
which is on the south side of the barge canal, abreast of the new 
locks, and leads from a point just above the new locks to a small high 
level basin within concrete retaining walls. It belongs to the State 
and forms part of the State's by-pass for discharging water from 
upper level to lower level of the barge canal. Gates in the basin 
control the flow through the two outlets, one of which is the remain- 
ing portion of the State's by-pass and consists of a structural steel 
flume of large diameter, about 250 feet long, extending down to and 
out over the lower level. The other outlet from the small basin is a 
surface canal about 20 feet wide, 6 feet deep, and 2,800 feet long, 
which follows the side of the steep bank. This canal is the property 
of the Hydraulic Race Co. The drop from upper to lower miter sill 
of the new locks is 49.16 feet. 

The State hydroelectric plant has an installation of two 14-inch 
water wheels operating under an effective head of 41.7 feet. It is 
estimated that the maximum possible rate of consumption of water 
is about 50 cubic feet per second. As each unit is capable of carry- 
ing the entire load, and a unit will be operated only when necessary 
to provide power for locking operations or for lighting, it is evident 
that the average daily consumption, even for maximum traffic con- 
ditions on the canal, will be less than 20 cubic feet per second. 

The north tunnel of the Hydraulic Race Co. supplies two double 
water wheels in the pulp mill of the United Box Board & Paper Co. 
In 1917 the flow through this tunnel was measured and found to be 
407 cubic feet per second. At that time the water level in the barge 
canal from Tonawanda to Lockport was held up by a dam at Tona- 
wanda with a crest elevation of 570 feet, barge canal datum. The 
removal of this dam in 1918 brought the level at Tonawanda down to 



200 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

that of the Niagara River, which varies with the stage of Lake Erie 
at Buffalo. The mean stage of Lake Erie for the years 1860 to 
1910, inclusive, was 572.58 United States standard datum. The cor- 
responding stage at Tonawanda is 566.01 United States datum, or 
567.14, barge canal datum. As water practically always flowed over 
and Tonawanda dam, a lowering of a little more than 2.86 feet at the 
mean stage given is therefore indicated. At the low stage at 565.5, 
barge canal datum, at Tonawanda, at which the limiting depth of 
the canal is 12 feet, the lowering of the level is 4J feet. It is stated 
that this lowering has unwatered the upper portions of the north 
tunnel, and thereby reduced its discharging capacity. At 50 per 
cent efficiency, which seems a reasonable estimate for the installation, 
the power produced from 200 cubic feet per second of water acting 
under 50 feet of head is 570 horsepower. The discharge from the 
water wheels which are fed through the north tunnel may be turned 
into the lower level of the canal or into a flume discharging into a 
basin of Eighteenmile Creek at a lower level and north of the 
canal. The Hydraulic Race Co. has under advisement plans for 
deepening and widening the upstream half of the tunnel, abandon- 
ing the downstream half, and constructing at the middle point a new 
power station with an installation of two 1,500-horsepower units. 
There are six users of power on the south side of the barge canal 
who draw water from the surface canal of the Hydraulic Race Co., 
and discharge it into the lower level of the canal. One of these 
users owns another installation not now in use, but which it is pro- 
posed to put into service. Assuming over-all efficiencies for the 
seven plants under consideration, and assuming also that in each case 
the maximum amount of power that can be produced is the installed 
power or the leased or granted power where the installed amount is 
not known, or the measured amount where it has been measured, it 
has been computed that the maximum possible present use of water 
by the seven plants is 773 cubic feet per second and the maximum 
possible present development of horsepower is 3,078. The name 
of each user is given in Table No. 15, together with the assumed 
maximum developable power, assumed over-all efficiency, and com- 
puted maximum possible use of water. 

Table No. 15. — Power developments on south headrace at Lockport, N. Y. 



No. 


Name of user. 


Assumed 
maximum 
horse- 
power. 


Assumed 
percentage 
efficiency. 


Estimated 
use of water 
(cubic feet 
per second). 


Remarks. 


1 


Lockport Light Heat & Power Co 

Total 


/ 1,500 
\ ■ 500 


80 
65 


331 

136 


JLease. 




2,000 

75 

650 




467 

19 

144 




9, 


Grigg Bros. Co 


70 

80 


Do. 


S 


Thompson Milling Co 


Grant and lease. 




Total 






2,725 

21 

135 

100 

97 




630 

8 
48 
45 
42 




4 


Trevor Manufacturing Co 


50 
50 
40 
40 


Lease. 




Western Block Co 


Rated. 


6 


do 


Measured. 


7 


Niagara Emery Mills (Inc.) 


Grant. 




Total 






3,078 




773 













DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 201 

It must be understood that the above given efficiencies and quan- 
tities of water are rough estimates believed to be sufficiently in ac- 
cord with the facts for the investigation in hand. The use of water 
by most of these plants is intermittent and below capacity. 

The entire use of water by the Hydraulic Race Co. at present 
possible is approximately 200 cubic feet per second through the north 
tunnel and 773 cubic feet per second through the south race, a total 
of 973 cubic feet per second. 

Water poiver along Eight eenniile Creek. — Of the barge canal spill- 
ways on the long level from Lockport to the Genessee River the one 
having the greatest length of waste weir crest is at Lockport over 
Eighteenmile Creek, a little less than half a mile below the locks. 
There are three waste gates, each 3^ feet square, with an estimated 
discharge capacity of 600 cubic feet per second at full canal. Eight- 
eenmile Creek, which is a very small stream, passes under the barge 
canal at the spillway in a culvert and flows nearly due north about 
12 miles into Lake Ontario 18 miles east of the mouth of Niagara 
River. Leaving the culvert the creek follows a narrow gorge for 
about \\ miles and falls something like 140 feet in this distance. 
Thence for 6J miles to the town of ISTewfane it winds through rather 
flat country with a fall of 40 feet or thereabouts. From Newfane to 
the lake, 4 miles, it flows between banks 40 to 50 feet high and falls 
approximately 70 feet. At present there are six water-power devel- 
opments along the lj-mile reach just north of the canal and two at 
Newfane. There are also three unused sites, all of which have been 
used formerly, and one site with 5 -foot head, which apparently never 
was developed. The 12 sites, developed and undeveloped, are listed 
in Table No. 16. 

Table No. 16. — Poicer sites on Eigltteenmile Creek. 



No. 


Name of owner. 


Head 
(feet). 


Installed 
horse- 
power 


Esti- 
mated 
prac- 
ticable 
horse- 
power 
installa- 
tion. 


Assumed 
percent- 
age effi- 
ciency. 


Esti- 
mated 
water 

required 

(cubic 

feet 

per 

second). 


Remarks. 


1 


United Box Board & Paper 
Co. (L. and T. Houston 
mill). 

United Box Board & Paper 
Co. 

Total.. 


30.4 
14.0 




1,400 


80 
50 


500 
750 


Undeveloped. 


2 


1600 


Developed. 










44.4 

12.1 

9.7 

20.5 
31.4 
34.2 

5.0 
9.5 

13.7 

8.9 
47.0 


Alleged head con- 


3 


Lockport Paper Co 


550 
280 

475 

820 
1,200 






80 
65 

65 
65 

70 


500 
390 

320 
355 
440 


trolled. 
New machinery. 


4 


Niagara Paper Mills 




Average horse- 


5 


Westerman & Co 




power used, 200. 


6 


Fiber Corporation 






7 


Electric Smelting & Alu- 
minum Co. 
Niagara Farmers Co 






8 




No development. 
Old development 

abandoned vears 

ago. 
Including grist mill 

of Fred Collins & 

Son. 


q 


Lockport Felt Co. (Horton 
Mills Site). 

Newfane Lumber & Manu- 
facturing Co. 




400 


75 
60 

50 

80 


500 

570 

475 
500 


in 


529 
240 


n 




i? 


Western New York Water Co- 


2,150 


Electric Co. 
Undeveloped. 







1 Assumed, not reported. 



202 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Through the flat lands the creek has a maximum discharge capacity 
of about 500 cubic feet per second. The natural low-water flow is 
negligible, but the flood flows are sufficient when added to a supply 
of 500 cubic feet per second from the barge canal to cause the creek 
to overflow its banks through the flat lands and damage farms and 
property. The State of New York has appropriated $2,500 for a 
survey of this portion of the creek, intending to increase the dis- 
charge capacity by straightening and widening. The water-power 
sites listed in the foregoing table follow one another in succession 
down the creek, each involving the use of the same water but under 
a new head. 

Medina water power. — At Medina, 17 miles east of Lockport along 
the barge canal, is a spillway having a waste weir 150 feet long. This 
is second in length of the 13 spillways of the long level. There are 
also six waste gates, each 3 feet square, having an estimated total 
discharge capacity of 1,000 cubic feet per second. The spillway is 
along the south side of the aqueduct which carries the canal over 
Oak Orchard Creek. Several miles south of the canal there is an ex- 
tensive swamp area forming the headwaters of the creek. A supply 
of water from the upstream portion of Tonawanda Creek is brought 
into Oak Orchard Creek above Medina through a feeder canal several 
miles long. The combined supply formerly was fed into the old 
Erie Canal through a short feeder at Medina, but now passes down 
Oak Orchard Creek. It is a very small quantity of water in dry 
times. Under the aqueduct the water surface elevation of the creek 
is approximately 482, or 32 feet below the spillway crest elevation 
of 514. From there the creek flows in a northeasterly direction 19 J 
miles to Lake Ontario through a gorge whose banks are 20 to 90 feet 
high. 

The natural descent of the stream is rather rapid at first, and 
becomes more gradual toward the lake. The 32-foot drop from canal 
level to creek at the aqueduct is developed on the south side of the 
canal by S. A. Cook & Co., who use the water intermittently to fur- 
nish power for a plant at the site. From the aqueduct to Lake 
Ontario the Western New York Utilities Co. owns most of the water 
rights. This company has two dams and power houses, and is now 
constructing a third dam and power house. The most upstream dam. 
No. 1, is just north of the aqueduct. The head is 30 feet, and the 
installation one 450 horsepower wheel. At 65 per cent efficiency the 
estimated water consumption is 200 cubic feet per second. One mile 
below Dam No. 1 is Dam No. 2. There is a storage reservoir of 
about 150 acres behind Dam No. 2, and the full head is 65 feet. The 
installation is three 900-horsepower units, a total of 2,700 horsepower. 
At 80 per cent efficiency the water consumption would be 460 cubic 
feet per second. Fourteen miles downstream from Dam No. 2 at 
Waterport, 4J miles upstream from the lake, Dam No. 3 is now 
being constructed. The head is to be 85 feet, and a pond of approxi- 
mately 600 acres will be formed, extending upstream more than 4 
miles. The full development contemplates three units, each of 2,800- 
horsepower capacity. At 80 per cent efficiency and full load the three 
proposed units will require 1,080 cubic feet per second. The total 
head to be developed by the Western New York Utilities Co. is the 
sum of the three heads given above, or 180 feet. Between Dam No. 2 
and the head of the pond to be formed behind Dam No. 3 is a fall of 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 203 

about 60 feet in nearly 10 miles. Development of the power in this 
reach is remotely contemplated. 

Other water poivers. — At various other spillways of the barge 
canal, or rather of its predecessor, the Erie Canal, power has been 
developed in a small way, partly from the spill and partly from 
the natural flow of the small streams which pass under the canal 
prism in culverts at these spillways. It is understood that many 
of these plants have been abandoned, and all of them seem likely 
to be. 

The barge canal crosses the Genesee River at grade in the city of 
Rochester. It is intended that the canal shall abstract from the 
river on the east side a quantity of water equal to that contributed 
on the west side, neither adding to nor subtracting from the river 
flow. Below this crossing there are four falls in the Genesee River, 
providing a total head of about 250 feet. This is all developed, but 
much of it not very efficiently. The total installation of power- 
developing machinery is 54,850 horsepower. 

Beyond the Genesee River none of the water diverted from Niagara 
River is used in power development, except for lighting and operat- 
ing locks, until the Oswego River is reached. Here whatever rem- 
nant of the original diversion m^iy remain is utilized in the develop- 
ments on that stream. 

The small State hydroelectric power stations along the portion of 
the Erie branch of the barge canal falling within the basin of the 
Great Lakes are located at Locks Kos. 34, 33, 29, 28B, 28A, 27, 24, 23, 
21, and 20. Power is transmitted from No. 34 to No. 35, from No. 33 
to No. 32, from No. 29 to No. 30, and from No. 21 to No. 22. This 
power is used only for operating and lighting locks. In almost 
every case the installation consists of two generating units, each hav- 
ing a 50-kilowatt 250-volt direct-current generator. The maximum 
quantity of water required at any lock probably does not exceed 
100 cubic feet per second, and that requirement is intermittent. 

Table No. 17 shows the existing power installations on the Oswego 
River. 

Table No. 17. — Power installations on the Oswego River. 



Place. 


Total 
head. 


Power 

installation. 


Phoenix 


Feet. 
10.2 
14.8 
18.0 
44.6 


Horsepower. 
3,000 


"niton 


15, 000 


Minetto 


9,300 


Oswego 


4,000 






Total 


117.6 


31 300 







These cover the entire developable head. It has been estimated 
by a State legislative committee that those heads may be developed 
to yield 63,800 horsepower. It is of interest to note that because of 
the construction and operation of the barge canal the Oswego River 
receives about 50 cubic feet of water per second which was naturally 
tributary to the Hudson River, and about 35 cubic feet per second 
naturally tributary to the Susquehanna River. 



204 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The flow from Seneca Lake is developed at Waterloo under a 
head of 14.5 feet, producing 1,000 horsepower, and again at Seneca 
Falls under a head of 49 feet, producing 3,700 horsepower. 

Leases and permits. — Except in the case of Lockport, it appears 
that no lease has ever been made or permit granted authorizing the 
use by individuals or corporations of waters of the western part of 
the Erie Canal or barge canal, from Niagara River on down along 
the 60-mile level, for power purposes. Certain other users claim 
rights on the grounds that, having for many years used water which 
wasted from the canal, and having invested capital for the pur- 
pose, they are now entitled to a continuance of this waste, which 
the State must furnish them. The State has not conceded any such 
rights, and some time ago warned the users that such waste was not 
likely to occur from the new barge canal. In the case of Lockport 
a lease was made January 25, 1826, to Richard Kennedy and Julius 
H. Hatch, in consideration of an annual payment of $200 for — 

All the surplus waters which without injury to navigation, or security of 
the canal, may be spared from the canal, at the head of the locks, in the village 
of Lockport, to be taken and drawn from the canal at such place and in such 
manner, and to be discharged into the lower level, at such places and in such 
manner as the said canal commissioners shall from time to time deem most 
advisable for the security of the canal, and for the convenience of the naviga- 
tion thereof. 

In 1856 the Lockport Hydraulic Co. was incorporated for a 50-year 
period, and became the assignee of a part of the rights of this lease, 
which were, in turn, transferred in November, 1907, to the Hydraulic 
Race Co., which was incorporated to succeed the Lockport Hydraulic 
Co., and which now owns the rights jointly with others who leased 
original rights prior to the formation of the Lockport Hydraulic 
Co. After the lease had been in existence and the rent paid for 82 
years the canal board, on December 31, 1908, canceled the lease in 
the name of the Hydraulic Race Co., intending that water power at 
the locks should be used or leased on different terms and under 
different conditions after the reconstruction of the canal and locks. 
Thereafter the State comptroller refused for six successive years 
to accept the annual rent offered. In January, 1915, the courts 
sustained the validity of the lease and granted a writ of mandamus 
compelling the comptroller to accept the rents. Under date of Sep- 
tember 1, 1896, the city of Lockport obtained a permit to construct 
a channel for the purpose of taking surplus water from the canal, 
but this was canceled February 2, 1897. 

On August 16, 1907, the Secretary of War granted to the Lockport 
Hydraulic Co. a revocable permit — 

To divert water of the Niagara River and its tributaries from the Erie Canal 
at Lockport, N. Y., above the locks, for power purposes, not exceeding 500 cubic 
feet per second. 

It was to be distinctly understood that the water so diverted should 
be returned to the canal below the locks, and that this permit should 
inure to the benefit of all persons and corporations then using said 
water for power purposes, whether lessees of the applicant or having 
the right to be furnished by it with water, and including the persons 
or corporations then diverting water from the Erie Canal at Eight- 
eenmile Creek, Middleport, Medina, Eagle Harbor, Albion, Holley, 
and other places. It Avas stipulated that no right was to be under- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 205 

stood as conferred without the consent of the State of New York, 
and that the permit was subject to any and all regulations and con- 
ditions to be imposed by the State. It was understood that the 
Lockport Hydraulic Co. was diverting 1,000 cubic feet per second 
at the time, 500 cubic feet per second of which was required for navi- 
gation purposes below the locks, and 500 cubic feet per second of 
which was being used by persons and corporations located as stated 
above. The purpose of the grant, as in the case of the permits issued 
on the same day to the Niagara Falls Power Co. and the Niag- 
ara Falls Hydraulic Power & Manufacturing Co., presumably was 
to prevent the grantees from sustaining loss and not to provide for 
any future development not then actually commenced. Two ques- 
tions have since arisen. The first was whether or not the permit 
which was made out to the Lockport Hydraulic Co. could be as- 
signed to the successor, the Hydraulic Race Co. 

The second was in regard to the construction of the permit in case 
more than 500 cubic feet per second of water should be diverted for 
navigation uses in the canal. It had been estimated by barge-canal 
engineers that the new canal would require 1,237 cubic feet per 
second. The opinion was expressed that the 500 cubic feet per second 
granted by the Secretary of War was to be diverted only in such part 
as Avas necessary to make the entire diversion around the locks 1,000 
cubic feet per second. Thus in case 1,000 or more cubic feet per 
second were diverted for navigation purposes there would be none of 
the Federal 500 cubic feet per second diverted, and although the 
Hydraulic Race Co. would not suffer, being so situated between upper 
and lower canal levels as to develop power from water by-passed 
either for power or navigation needs, yet the users of water power 
on Eighteenmile Creek and at other places along the lower level 
would be cut off, and the purpose of the permit would, to that extent, 
be frustrated. Both these questions were passed upon by the Chief 
of Engineers in March, 1911, and his opinion, concurred in by the 
Secretary of War and the Judge Advocate General, was that the 
grant did pertain to the Hydraulic Race Co., and that it should be 
construed by conferring the right to divert 500 cubic feet per second 
independent of the amount required for navigation purposes. The 
permit by the Secretary of War has been extended from time to time, 
the last permit being dated July 1, 1918. 

The State of New York granted to the Lockport and Newfane 
Mill Owners Association, on November 25, 1913, a revocable permit 
to divert from the Niagara River through the barge canal to Lock- 
port and into Eighteenmile Creek the 500 cubic feet per second of 
water covered by the Federal permit, the association to pay $7,500 
per year to the State for the privilege of using the canal as a race- 
way. The permit provides for pro rata deductions from the pay- 
ment for any period of time over one day that the State fails to de- 
liver the water. Provision is also made that the association shall 
pay the cost of maintaining an inspector of the works involved when 
the superintendent of public works so directs, and also all damages 
arising from the diversion of this water. Practically all the manu- 
facturers located along Eighteenmile Creek are members of this as- 
sociation, and the Hydraulic Race Co. is a member. The proportion 
of the $7,500 paid by each member is the ratio of the head of that 



206 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

members plant to the total developable head. The water users at 
Medina and other points beyond Lockport, not being members of 
the Lockport and Newfane Mill Owners Association (Inc.), derive 
no benefit from this permit. 

During the period from 1910 to 1918 the State was engaged in 
altering and improving the western end of the Erie Canal to make 
it a part of the new barge canal system. This work included remov- 
ing one of the old flights of five locks at Lockport and building a 
new flight of two larger locks on the same site, deepening and widen- 
ing the canal prism, and constructing new bridges, walls, aqueducts, 
and other structures. In order to carry on this work to advantage 
it was necessary to restrict the use of the canal for several years. 
At times traffic was completely suspended and portions of the lower 
level were dry. The water power users at Lockport, Medina, and 
elsewhere were seriously affected by the reconstruction. By means 
of a temporary dam constructed across the canal near Exchange 
Street, Lockport, at the expense of the Lockport and Newfane Mill 
Owners Association, and maintained by them during the closed sea- 
son of navigation, it was possible for water-power users at Lockport 
and on Eighteenmile Creek to operate considerably more during sev- 
eral seasons than they otherwise would have been able, while con- 
struction work progressed on the lower level. 

Records kept by the Fiber Corporation show that in 1917 the flow 
down Eighteenmile Creek was 500 cubic feet per second on 137 days, 
nothing on 20 days, and averaged 270 cubic feet per second on the 
remaining days. Supposedly the manufacturers along the creek 
have since been able to get the full 500 cubic feet per second per- 
mitted whenever they cared to use it. At times of storms or spring 
run-off, it is necessary to reduce this quantity so that the total dis- 
charge down the creek shall not exceed 500 cubic feet per second, 
as otherwise the low lying farm lands may be damaged by flood. 

It has been asserted by some users of water power at Lockport 
that a more efficient use of water diverted from Niagara River for 
power purposes can be made by routing them via barge canal to 
Lockport, and Eighteenmile Creek to Olcott, than at Niagara Falls. 
The total fall in water surface from Tonawanda to Lake Ontario is 
4 feet greater than it is from Grass Island, at the intake of the 
Niagara Falls Power Co. to Lake Ontario ; but 1.5 feet of this dif- 
ference is lost getting the water to Lockport, leaving a net gain of 
only 2.5 feet. This difference is soon lost in getting the water from 
one plant to the next down Eighteenmile Creek. Any practicable 
future development along the creek would involve similar losses 
which would total up to a sum sufficiently large to make the net 
available head considerably less than at Niagara Falls. The total 
developable head at Lockport and Eighteenmile Creek is stated to 
be 286.5 feet, and this appears to be a liberal estimate. The members 
of the Lockport and Newfane Mill Owners Association seem anxious 
to develop this head efficiently if assured of a reasonably constant 
supply of water. At Niagara Falls a head of 304 feet is readily 
developable. The total head at present developed and used is 212 
feet at Niagara Falls, and less than 175 at Lockport and Eighteen- 
mile Creek. It has been stated that difficulty with ice caused more 
power interruptions at Niagara Falls than at Lockport. Even if so, 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 207 



the argument does not carry much weight because on the average 
for a number of years the power loss from ice troubles is small at 



Niagara Falls. 



5. BLACK ROCK CANAL. 



No water diverted down the Black Rock Canal is now used for 
power purposes. In the early days of the canal there were two 
grist mills near the present Black Rock Lock, which operated under 
a head of about 5 feet. These were abandoned many years ago. Un- 
til 1918 the water used from the Erie Canal for power at Lockport, 
N. Y., and on down the 60-mile level was diverted from Lake Erie 
through the Black Rock Canal into the Erie Canal at Buffalo. 

G. CANADIAN AND UNITED STATES POWER PLANTS AT NIAGARA FALLS. 

The present diversions of Niagara River water for power devel- 
opment at Niagara Falls are on the United States side, about 17,600 
cubic feet per second, and on the Canadian side probably about 
33,300. This gives a total for both sides of 50,900 cubic feet per 
second. This water is diverted from the river not more than 1J 
miles above the Falls and returned to the river within less than a 
mile of the foot of the Falls. 

Developments are now in progress on both sides of the river. 
That on the United States side is at the hydraulic plant of the 
Niagara Falls Power Co. It will make possible the use of the full 
19,500 cubic feet per second allotted this company, and leave con- 
siderable reserve capacity in addition. On the Canadian side there 
are two developments under way. One is an extension of the plant 
of the Ontario Power Co., now owned by the Hydro-Electric Power 
Commission of Ontario, which it is estimated will increase the water 
consumption of that plant approximately 2,100 cubic feet per second. 
The other is an entirely new development of the entire head of the 
Falls and rapids, designed to divert 10,000 cubic feet of water per 
second. 

Reference is here made to the description of Niagara River in 
Section A of this report, to Plates Nos. 13 and 14, and to the photo- 
graphs of Falls and rapids accompanying Appendix C. 

Limitations on the use of water. — The period from 1890 to 1906 
was a time of great waterpower development at Niagara Falls. 
Within that period all the present powerhouses were begun. A num- 
ber of other development schemes were advanced and several com- 
panies were chartered. The sum of the diversions proposed by these 
companies amounted to a very considerable portion of the Avhole flow 
of the river. It was felt that such unregulated appropriation of the 
water of the Falls might well cause irremedial damage to their scenic 
beauty and a widespread agitation arose to prevent such an occur- 
rence. At the request of Congress the International Waterways 
Commission made an investigation and recommended that the diver- 
sions be limited by legislation or treat}^ 

On June 29, 1906, the Burton Act was passed. This provided for 
the issuance by the Secretary of War of permits of the following 
four classes : 

First. Permits to divert water from the Niagara River on the 
American side to present users to an aggregate not exceeding 15,600 



"208 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

cubic feet per second, or 8,600 cubic feet per second to one com- 
pany. 

Second. Revocable permits to divert additional water from the 
Niagara River on the American side to such amount, if any, as shall 
not injure the river as a navigable stream or as a boundary stream, 
and shall not injure the scenic grandeur of Niagara Falls, and not 
until the 15,600 cubic feet allotted has been used for six months. 

Third. Permits to transmit electrical power from Canada into 
the United States to the aggregate amount of 160,000 horsepower. 

Fourth. Revocable permits for the transmission of additional 
electrical power from Canada into the United States, but in no case, 
together with the 160,000 horsepower mentioned above and the 
amount generated and used in Canada, to exceed a total of 350,000 
horsepower. 

In accordance with the provisions of this act the Secretary of War 
granted permits of the first and third types mentioned above, as 
follows : 

Cubic feet 
Diversion of water from Niagara River : per second. 

Aug. 16, 1907. To the Niagara Falls Power Co 8, 600 

Aug. 16, 1907. To the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power & Manu- 
facturing Go. (later the Hydraulic Power Co.) 6,500 

Aug. 16, 1907. To the Lockport Hydraulic Co. (later the Hydraulic 

Race Co.) 500 

Total 15.600 

Importation of electric energy from Canada : Horsepower. 

Aug. 16, 1907. To the Ontario Power Co 60,000 

Aug. 16, 1907. To the Canadian Niagara Power Co 52, 500 

Aug. 17, 1907. To the Electrical Development Co. (now Toronto 

Power Co.) 46,000 

Total 158,500 

A reservation of 1,500 horsepower to be imported was made for 
the International Eailwa}^ Co., but no permit was ever granted, be- 
cause the company was unable to obtain the necessary Canadian 
license. 

The quantities of water stipulated were such as the respective com- 
panies considered necessary for operating to full capacity the plants 
then completed or actually under construction. 

The Burton Act would have expired by limitation on June 29, 
1909, but it was extended to June 29, 1911, by joint resolution of 
Congress, approved March 3, 1909. On June 29, 1911, the act ex- 
pired by limitation, but it was extended by joint resolution on August 
22, 1911; expired again March 1, 1912; was extended again April 5, 
1912 ; and expired finally March 4, 1913. 

Section 4 of the Burton Act requested the President to negotiate 
a treaty with Great Britain on this subject. This was done, and the 
treaty was ratified May 5, 1910. By its provisions this treaty was 
to remain in force for five years from date of ratification, and there- 
after until terminated by 12 months' written notice from either 
party. No such notice has been given. 

Article 5 of the treaty makes the following stipulations respecting 
the waters of Niagara River: 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 209 

Article V. 

The high contracting parties agree that it is expedient to limit the diversion 
of waters from the Niagara River so that the level of Lake Erie and the flow 
of the stream shall not be appreciably affected. It is the desire of both parties 
to accomplish this object with the least possible injury to investments which 
have already been made in the construction of power plants on the United States 
side of the river under grants of authority from the State of New York, and on 
the Canadian side of the river under licenses authorized by the Dominion of 
Canada and the Province of Ontario. 

So long as this treaty shall remain in force no diversion of the Niagara River 
above the Falls from .the natural course and stream thereof shall be permitted 
except for the purposes and to the extent hereinafter provided. 

The United States may authorize and permit the diversion within the State 
of New York of the waters of the said river above the Falls of Niagara, for 
power purposes, not exceeding in the aggregate a daily diversion at the rate of 
20,000 cubic feet of water per second. 

The United Kingdom, by the Dominion of Canada, or the Province of Ontario, 
may authorize and permit the diversion within the Province of Ontario of the 
waters of said river above the Falls of Niagara, for power purposes, not exceed- 
ing in the aggregate a daily diversion at the rate of 36,000 cubic feet of water 
per second. 

The prohibitions of this article shall not apply to the diversions of water for 
sanitary or domestic purposes or for the service of canals for the purposes of 
navigation. 

The treaty also created an International Joint Commission, com- 
posed of three commissioners from each country, for the settlement 
of minor difficulties concerning boundary waters and kindred mat- 
ters and to investigate and report upon such questions regarding 
boundary waters as might from time to time be referred to it. 

During the operation of the Burton Act the permits of the various 
companies were interpreted to limit the maximum diversion at any 
moment. When the Burton Act expired on March 4, 1913, the com- 
panies ran as they pleased, and somewhat in excess of the old per- 
mits, until it was decided that the Secretary of War had authority 
to limit the American diversions under sections 10 and 12 of the 
river and harbor act of March 3, 1899. The companies were in- 
formed by the Chief of Engineers on July 19, 1913, that — 

For the present no objection is being made by the War Department of existing 
diversions so long as the daily average does not exceed that of the permits and 
diversion limits which existed last year under the Burton Act. 

The companies continued their operations on the basis of this in- 
formation until May 28, 1914, when they were notified by the Secre- 
tary of War that the maximum limitations of diversions were inter- 
preted as relating not to the daily average quantity diverted, but to 
the quantity diverted at any moment. This status continued up to 
December, 1915. 

In the winter of 1915-16 the growing demand for electric power 
in Buffalo caused a serious shortage of power there during the even- 
ing hours. The Buffalo General Electric Co. was building a new 
steam plant to relieve the situation, but it could not begin supplying 
power from this station for some months. No formal permit for 
additional diversion was granted, but because of the emergency the 
Secretary of War decided to raise no objection to an excess diversion 
by the Niagara Falls Power Co. not to exceed 1,000 cubic feet per 
second between the hours of 4 p. m. and 7 p. m. during the months 
of December, 1915, and January and February, 1916. 

27880—21 14 



210 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

During the following spring the power shortage in Buffalo became 
worse and on May 25, 1916, the Secretary of War permitted the 
diversion of the Niagara Falls Power Co. to be increased sufficiently 
to meet the demands of existing customers of the Buffalo General 
Electric Co., which could not otherwise be supplied. It was pro- 
vided that such power should only be furnished when it was indis- 
pensably necessary, and should not exceed 12,000 horsepower in 
addition to that generated under the old permit. This diversion was 
to be permitted only until December 31, 1916. The privilege was 
made use of from July 26, 1916, to December 31, 1916. 

On January 19, 1917, a joint resolution of Congress was approved, 
authorizing the Secretary of War to issue revocable permits for the 
additional diversion of water. Permits were issued to the Hy- 
draulic Power Co. for 8,785 cubic feet per second and to the Niagara 
Falls Power Co. for 10,000 cubic feet per second. These increases 
of the diversion were made because of the shortage of power in the 
Niagara frontier district, and the great importance of the munitions 
industries dependent upon Niagara power. They expired on June 
30, 1917, but were extended one year by another joint resolution. 
On July 1, 1918, the Secretary of War issued new permits under 
authority of a joint resolution of June 29, 1918. These gave 9,500 
cubic feet per second to the Hydraulic Power Co. and 10,000 cubic 
feet per second to the Niagara Falls Power Co. until July 1, 1919. 
Under these permits, and the additional one allotting 500 cubic feet 
per second to the Hydraulic Race Co. of Lockport, the whole 20,000 
cubic feet per second authorized by the treaty is made available, 
and the companies are able to utilize the full capacity of their 
plants. 

When the first permits were granted in 1906 the Niagara Falls 
Power Co., with its tenant, the International Paper Co., was already 
using nearly the full 8,600 cubic feet per second granted, and con- 
tinued to use about this amount until 1916, when it was increased 
by temporary permits. For the last two years the diversion by this 
company has usually been between 9,000 and 10,000 cubic feet per 
second. 

In 1906 the Hydraulic Power Co. and its tenants was diverting 
only about 2,500 cubic feet per second. As the installation of new 
units proceeded this amount was gradually increased until by the 
end of 1911 nearly the full 6,500 of their permit was being used. 
The diversion continued to exceed 6,000 until the temporary permits 
of January, 1917, allowed it to attain its present value of nearly 
9,000 cubic feet per second. 

Supervision of the importation of electrical energy from Canada 
terminated with the final expiration of the Burton Act. 

In Canada there has been no legislation limiting the diversion on 
that side. 

Canadian Niagara Power Co. — This company is controlled by the 
Niagara Falls Power Co., which owns all the bonds and all but a 
few shares of the stock. The capital stock is $3,000,000, of which 
$2,939,600 is outstanding. The bonded debt is 6,480,000, covered by 
three issues of 6 per cent debenture bonds. The diversion from Ni- 
agara River by this company is estimated to be 9,600 cubic feet per 
second. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GKEAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 211 

The company operates under a lease from the Queen Victoria 
Niagara Falls Park Commissioners, dated May 1, 1899, having a life 
of 50 years and renewable for three further periods of 20 years each, 
with the provision that the lieutenant governor in council -may re- 
quire a fourth renewal for a term of 20 years. Tne company is 
bound by the lease to pay an annual rental of $15,000 for generating 
any power up to 10,000 horsepower, $1 per horsepower for all power 
between 10,000 and 20,000 horsepower, 75 cents per horsepower for 
all power between 20,000 and 30,000 horsepower, and 50 cents per 
horsepower for all power above 30,000 horsepower. Thus, for an 
output of 100,000 horsepower, which is approximately the quantity 
now generated, the annual rental is 67^ cents per hornepower per 
annum. The rentals may be adjusted at each renewal of the lease. 

The plant of the Canadian Niagara Power Co. was the first hydro- 
electric development on the Canadian side at Niagara Falls. As 
early as 1889 the American capitalists interested in the Niagara 
Falls Power Co. made unsuccessful overtures to the Commissioners 
of Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park. Later, English capitalists 
secured for $10,000 an option to develop power in the park, and re- 
newed the option for a second year for $10,000. The option finally 
expired March 1, 1892. English and American capitalists then com- 
bined and secured from the park commissioners on April 7, 1892, 
the exclusive right to utilize the waters of the Niagara River for 
power development within the limits of the park. During the same 
month the Ontario Legislature confirmed this agreement and incor- 
porated the Canadian Niagara Power Co. At a later date the legis- 
lature passed an act conferring on the park commissioners authority 
to negotiate with the company for the surrender of the exclusive 
privileges granted; and on July 15, 1899, the company abandoned 
the exclusive rights in return for certain concessions. Still further 
restrictions were placed upon the company's operations on June 19, 
1901, when it obtained an extension of the time limit within which 
to construct its works. 

Under its statutory rights the company is not limited in its pro- 
duction of power, nor as to the amount of water which it may with- 
draw from the river. Its plans, however, are subject to the appro- 
val of the park commissioners, and those already approved call for 
an installation of 11 units of 11,000 horsepower, nominal capacity, 
each operating under a head of approximate^ 141 feet. On the 
basis of the nominal power of such an installation, and under the 
further assumption that one unit would always be held as a spare, 
it was computed in the year 1906, or thereabouts, that the probable 
consumption of water would be 9,500 cubic feet per second. 

Construction of the plant was commenced in 1901. The first power 
was produced in January, 1905, and the tenth unit, the last to be 
installed, was placed in service in 1916. 

The location and general layout of this plant is shown on the map 
on Plate No. 13. 

In general the main features of this plant are very similar to 
those of the plant of the Niagara Falls Power Co. There is a short 
fore bay leading to a power house 600 feet long by 110 feet wide. 
Under the power house and running nearly its entire length, is a 
narrow, deep wheel pit. From the bottom of this pit. at one end, a 



212 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

tailrace tunnel about 2,200 feet long leads to the Maid-of-the-Mist 
pool beyond the Falls. 

The water for this plant is diverted at the Canadian shore of the 
rapids, about a quarter of a mile upstream from the Horseshoe Falls, 
through an opening about 370 feet wide and 15 feet deep. This 
opening has recently been fitted with a set of submerged arches to 
keep out ice. The fore bay has a length of 270 feet and a depth of 
14 or 15 feet. From the entrance described above it narrows to a 
width of 282 feet, at which point it is crossed by a highway and elec- 
tric railway bridge. It then widens to a width of 526 feet along the 
face of the power house. A row of submerged arches in the wall of 
the power house admits the water to a small inclosed fore bay within 
the building. Here it passes through racks and enters the 10 pen- 
stocks. From the northwest corner of the outer fore bay an ice run 
leads to the river. 

The hydraulic machinery is under the power house in a wheel pit 
564 feet long and 18 feet wide, with a mean depth of 160 feet. The 
penstocks are of steel, 10.2 feet in diameter. They enter the pit 
almost horizontally, and descend vertically down the pit to the tur- 
bine deck, where they make a right angled turn and enter the tur- 
bines 116 feet below the fore bay level. 

The 10 turbines are of three different types. The five constituting 
the original installation are inward-flow wheels with double runners. 
The two runners are on a common vertical shaft and discharge into 
a cast-iron draft chest between them from which the two draft tubes 
lead. The runners are of bronze and are 5 feet 4 inches in diameter. 
The consumption of water is regulated by cylinder gates. Each tur- 
bine has two draft tubes 5 feet 3 inches in diameter and about 50 
feet long. These units are rated at 10,000 horsepower each. 

Two other units are of similar design but are rated at 12,500 horse- 
power, and are each provided with three draft tubes. The remaining 
three units, also rated at 12,500 horsepower, are of more modern de- 
sign, with single runners and single draft tubes. These last five tur- 
bines have scroll cases and cylinder gates. 

The tailrace formed by the bottom of the wheel pit is 18 feet 
wide and about 32 feet deep at the north end, from which the bottom 
slants up on a 3 per cent grade to the south. The draft tubes enter 
its sides at an angle of 45° a few feet above the bottom. At the 
north end is a gate for use when only a few units are operating to 
prevent the draft tubes becoming unsealed. 

From the north end of the tail race the water is carried away by a 
tail-race tunnel 2,164 feet long. Its cross-section is of the horseshoe 
type, 25 feet high and 18 feet 10 inches greatest width. It is lined 
with concrete with a facing of brick. The tunnel has a descending- 
grade of 7 feet per 1,000, except near the portal where ot falls 11.2 
feet in 103 feet by a reverse vertical curve with a radius of 248 feet. 
The greater part of this portion is lined with granite blocks. The 
mean velocity through this tunnel is about 24 feet per second. The 
portal is at the water surface in the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool a few hun- 
dred feet from the Canadian end of the Horseshoe Fall. 

The generators are of the vertical shaft type with internal revolv- 
ing fields. They are connected with the turbine by hollow steel shafts 
3 feet 4 inches inside diameter, except at the bearings, where the 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD NIAGARA RIVER. 213 

shafts are solid and of smaller diameter. The first five generators 
are rated at 10,000 horsepower each, and the other five at 12,500 horse- 
power each. They operate at 25 cycles per second. 

Alcoves, or chambers, in the rock beside the wheel pit at the ele- 
vation of the turbines contain the eight exciters, rated at 267 horse- 
power each. A similar chamber contains a pumping system for sup- 
plying cooling water to the transformers. 

The oil switches and other auxiliaries are operated electrically 
from a switchboard in the power house. The power house is con- 
nected by an underground conduit line to a large transformer house 
about 2,000 feet south of the power house. This contains 15 trans- 
formers rated at 1,675 horsepower each, and 6 rated at 5,850 horse- 
power each. These can be connected to give either 22,000, 33,000. 
38.500, or 57,300 volts. The output of the transformer station is used 
chiefly for transmission to Buffalo at 22,000 volts over a pole line 16 
miles long, including a river crossing of 2,193 feet span between Fort 
Erie, Ontario, and Buffalo. Another underground conduit line 
crosses the Upper Steel Arch Bridge to Niagara Falls, N. Y., and 
connects with the Niagara plant of the Niagara Falls Power Co. 

This plant and stations 1 and 2 of the Niagara Falls Power Co. 
are operated as a unit, and machines in the different plants may be 
run in parallel. The Canadian plant is now generating about 100,000 
horsepower, of which a little less than one-half is imported into the 
United States either by the transmission line to Buffalo or by the 
12,000-volt line across the bridge at Niagara Falls. A large part of 
the power which does not come to the United States is sold to the 
Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario. 

The gross head on this plant is about 173 feet at mean stage. As 
the plant is now operated about 43 feet of this is lost in the tunnel. 
From the best data available it appears that this plant is now pro- 
ducing about 100,000 horsepower from about 9,600 cubic feet of 
water per second. That would indicate the production of 10.4 horse- 
power per cubic foot per second, or an over-all efficiency of 53 per 
cent. 

Considerable trouble with ice is experienced nearly every winter, 
and the company maintains an electric tug in the f orebay to keep the 
ice broken up. 

The importation of power from this plant into the United States 
began on August 1, 1905. The average amount imported that year 
was about 4,000 horsepower. The next .year it was 12,000. From 
then it increased gradually, reaching 61,000 horsepower in 1913, 
and about 62,000 in 1915. In 1916 the exportation was restricted by 
Canada so that the average in 1917 had fallen to 37,000 horsepower. 
In November, 1918, it was about 40,000 horsepower. 

Ontario Power Go. — The diversion of water from Niagara River 
by the Ontario Power Co. is estimated to be 11,200 cubic feet per 
second. Extensions to the plant now well under way will increase 
the diversion to a quantity estimated to be 13,300 cubic feet per sec- 
ond. This company is controlled by the Hydro-Electric Power Com- 
mission of Ontario, which owns 90 per cent of the stock. The 
authorized capital stock is $15,000,000, but the outstanding stock is; 
only $10,000,000. The outstanding bonded debt is $12,678,000 as 
against $15,000,000 authorized. 



214 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

This company came into existence in 1887 under the name of 
" Canadian Power Co.," having been incorporated by the Ontario 
Legislature. Its name was changed to Ontario Power Co. in 1899. 
The privileges granted it included — 

Full power to construct, equip, maintain, and operate a canal and hydraulic 
tunnel from some point in the Welland River at or near its conjunction with the 
Niagara River to a point or points on the west bank of the Niagara River about 
or south of the Whirlpool, and from a point or points in the Niagara River at 
or immediately south of the head of the rapids near the Welland River to a point 
or points on the west bank of the Niagara River about or south of Clark Hill. 

None of the works authorized were to be constructed and none of 
the powers given exercised within the limits of Queen Victoria 
Niagara Falls Park, except with the consent of the lieutenant gov- 
ernor in council and the park commissioners. It should be pointed out 
that the park then extended upstream only to include the Dufferin 
Islands. 

On April 11, 1900, the first agreement with the park commissioners 
was made, providing for a double development, the water being 
diverted from Welland River through a canal to a power house in 
the park, where it would be used under 40 feet of head, and con- 
ducted from that point partly in an open canal and partly under- 
ground to a power house in the gorge below the Falls. By a second 
agreement, dated June 28, 1902, the rights of the first agreement were 
for the most part surrendered, and provision was made for conduct- 
ing water from Welland and Niagara Rivers underground. This 
last agreement specified the general terms of the license, which was 
granted April 1, 1900, and which provides for a yearly rental of 
$30,000, with $1 per horsepower per annum additional for any power 
generated above 20,000 horsepower and up to 30,000 horsepower, 75 
cents per horsepower per annum for power from 30,000 to 40,000, and 
50 cents per annum for each horsepower above 40,000. The lease 
covers a term of 50 years, with option of three renewals of 20 years 
each, and provision to compel a further 20-year period of operation 
by the company. The rent may be adjusted at each renewal. 

On August 7, 1902, and subsequently the same year upon submittal 
of plans, approval was given to construct a plant having three under- 
ground conduits each 18 feet in diameter, conducting water from 
Niagara River at the Dufferin Islands to a power house in the gorge 
below the Falls. 

On August 1, 1917, the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of On- 
tario took possession of the plant upon purchase of 90,000 shares of 
the capital stock at $80 a share (par value $100) and upon agree- 
ment to assume the bond liability of this and certain subsidiary com- 
panies, the total of which was stated in the press to be $14,669,000. 
Payment for the stock was made in 4 per cent, 40 year, bonds of the 
Hydro-Electric Commission, guaranteed by the Province of Ontario. 

In the agreements the amount of water which the company may 
divert is not specified, nor the amount of power which may be gene- 
rated. The plans are said to call for 22 units of 10,000 horsepower 
each, operating under a total head of 180 feet. The reports of the 
park commissions, and other printed statements set the approval 
plans at 180,000 horsepower, 60,000 from each of the three conduits. 
In 1906 or earlier the ultimate diversion of water required was va- 
riously computed to be 11,700 cubic feet per second and 12,000 cubic 
feet per second. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 215 

The intake of this plant is situated at the Dufferin Islands about 
5,000 feet above the Horseshoe Falls, and the power house is in the 
Gorge about 1,000 feet below them. The essential feature of the in- 
take is a submerged weir or diverter extending into the river at the 
crest of the first cascade. This is a curved concrete dam about 700 
feet long, with its crest at elevation 553, -corresponding to the ex- 
treme low stage of the river at this point. The water enters the 
outer fore bay between the shore and the outer end of this weir. This 
opening is protected by an ice diverter consisting of a submerged 
curtain wall making an angle of 45° with the original current in the 
river. The bottom of this curtain wall is about 5 feet below low 
water and 6 feet above the bottom of the intake. It is 596 feet long, 
and is supported on concrete piers which leave between them 25 open- 
ings each 6 feet high and 20 feet wide. Gates are provided for clos- 
ing these openings and draining the fore bay. 

The outer fore bay is about 800 feet long and its width tapers 
from 600 to 320 feet, its center line following a curve through an 
angle of about 80°. At its inner end is the rack house, parallel with 
the shore. This is 320 feet long, and is protected by a similar curtain 
wall 4 feet below low water and provided with 16 openings each 14 
feet high and 18J feet long. These openings are guarded by racks. 
To insure a current along this curtain wall to carry away ice, the 
end of the weir next to the rack house has its first 50 feet cut down 
4 feet and its next 50 feet cut down 2 feet below the rest of the 
crest. 

The inner fore bay lies between the rack house and the gatehouse. 
It is 250 feet long and tapers in width from 320 to 120 feet, its center 
line curving through about 90°. At its lower end is the gatehouse 
^hich is provided with the head works for three 18-foot pipes. The 
pipe or conduit entrances are closed by large Stoney gates 18 feet 
square. The entrance is guarded by coarse racks and a small ice run. 

The first conduit was of steel. It was circular, 18 feet in diameter, 
one-half inch thick, and 6,180 feet long from the gatehouse to the 
first penstock. It had a fall of 28 feet and was designed to carry 
about 4,000 cubic feet of water per second. It was incased in con- 
crete at- the time the second conduit was laid. The conduit was laid 
in open cut through the park and covered with a few feet of earth. 
The second pipe is parallel to the first. It is of reinforced concrete 
of a peculiar oblate cross section equivalent in erea to an 18-foot 
circle, and 18 inches thick, The third 18-foot pipe provided in the 
original design has never been installed, but a 13^-foot wood stave 
pipe of Oregon fir, 4 inches thick, has been built in its place recently 
as a temporary measure. 

From the lower end of the steel pipe seven steel penstocks 9 feet in 
diameter descend vertically through shafts in the rock. They are 
controlled by large, horizontal gate valves in a gallery under the con- 
duit. These penstocks descend vertically to the level of the base- 
ment of the power house, make a right-angled turn on a radius of 
18 feet, and extend horizontally into the power house. Two smaller 
penstocks, each 30 inches in diameter, reach from the conduit to the 
power house in a straight line through an inclined tunnel, which also 
carries the cable ducts connecting the power house and the trans- 
former house. At the end of the conduit is a small open surge basin 
or spillway provided with a waste tunnel. 



216 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

In similar manner seven large penstocks and two small ones lead 
from the second conduit to the power house. There is also a gate 
valve and connection by which penstock No. 7 can be fed from the 
second conduit instead of the first. Penstocks No. 13 and No. 14 and 
the two small penstocks are controlled by " Johnson valves " instead 
of gate valves. No. 13 and No. 14 can also be connected to the new 
wood-stave conduit. The end of the second conduit leads to a 
" Johnson differential surge tank " with waste tunnel. For the 
wood-stave conduit a steel surge tank 50 feet in diameter and 80 feet 
high has been erected in the park. 

The power house is a concrete building in the Gorge. It is 77 feet 
wide and about 650 feet long. As originally designed it was to have 
18 units of 10,000 horsepower each and 4 exciters. It now has 16 
units, the last two of which are in process of installation. The first 
three are rated at 10,000 horsepower each, the next four at 12,000 
horsepower each, and the next seven at 14,000 horsepower each. 
They are all of the same general type, though made by different 
manufacturers and having different details. Each unit consists of 
two Francis turbines and a generator mounted on a common horizon- 
tal shaft. The turbines are supplied with water by ascending 
branches from the penstocks below them. They have scroll cases 
and wicket gates and discharge through a common draft tube be- 
tween them into tailraces under the power house. The draft tubes 
are 10 feet in diameter, and the tailraces at their outer end are 
vaulted passages 5J feet high and 20 feet wide. They discharge over 
a weir into the Maid of the Mist Pool. At full load the elevation of 
the tail- water above the weirs is about 353. The generators, which 
are of the internal-revolving field type, are at the river ends of the 
horizontal shafts. They operate at 187-J revolutions per minute and 
produce three-phase alternating current at 25 cycles, 12,000 volts. 

The two small machines, fed from the first conduit and originally 
installed as exciters, are now used to generate direct current for run- 
ning elevators and for other station service. Excitation is provided 
by a rather unusual system. The two small penstocks from the sec- 
ond pipe supply water to two small horizontal-shaft turbines, each 
of 1,600 horsepower. Each turbine is direct connected to a small 
alternator, an induction motor, and an exciter for the alternator. 
The alternators supply current to 14 small motor-generator sets, one 
beside each large generator. These supply the direct current to ex- 
cite the fields of their respective generators. Each direct-current 
generator of the motor-generator sets is connected up permanently to 
the field of its corresponding main generator, and its voltage is main- 
tained automatically by a Tirrell regulator in the operating room, 
which is shunted across the field of the small machine. The regu- 
lator connections provide regulation of the power factor of the main 
generator also. The induction motor on each service unit can be 
connected to low- voltage secondary mains leading from transformers 
on the main line. It was intended originally that the motor should 
be in circuit customarily, thus " floating on the line," to be ready to 
pick up the service unit load in case the turbine failed, and also to 
steady the turbine, and thus improve the speed control. In practice 
it has been found more satisfactory to switch the motors off from the 
line. Thus their rotors merely rotate idly on the shafts. 



t 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 217 

The station is operated from a switchboard in the transformer 
house. This is a large building on top of the bluff. It is about 
550 feet behind the powerhouse and 255 feet above it. It contains 
a large installation of transformers and is the starting point of the 
transmission lines. The transmission is at various voltage from 
12,000 to 110,000. The most important lines are those of the Hydro- 
Electric Power Commission, and the Niagara, Lockport & Ontario 
Power Co. The first runs primarily to Hamilton and Toronto but 
distributes much power in neighboring parts of Ontario, running as 
far west as Windsor. For the second line the Ontario Power Co. 
takes the power about 5 miles down the river and across the lower 
gorge below the Devils Hole. Here it is is delivered to the Niagara, 
Lockport & Ontario Power Co. in a building on the American side. 
The latter company transmits it to Lockport, Rochester, Syracuse, 
and other points. These two customers each take about one-third 
of the output of the plant. The remainder is distributed to near-by 
consumers on both sides of the river. 

This plant is now producing about 163,000 horsepower, of which 
about 50,000 horsepower is imported into the United States. The 
gross head on this plant from the river at the intake to the Maid-of- 
the-Mist Pool is about 215 feet. From the best data available it 
appears that 11,200 cubic feet of water per second are used to gen- 
erate 163,000 horsepower. This is an output of 14.6 horsepower per 
cubic foot per second and an over- all efficiency of 60 per cent. This 
is the most efficient of the Canadian plants at Niagara Falls, and it 
develops more power than any other hydroelectric station at the 
Falls. It began to produce in November, 1905. 

To afford relief during the great shortage of power caused by the 
development of the munitions industries in the Niagara district the 
company is now installing two temporary units. These machines 
were built for the plant of the Aluminum Co. of America on the 
Yadkin River. They are very similar to the other units in this sta- 
tion and are expected to develop about 15,000 horsepower each. The 
output of the machines on conduit No. 2 will be increased by the 
paralleling of that conduit with the new one, and the total increase 
in the capacity of the plant will probably be between 40,000 and 
50,000 horsepower. This will increase the total use of water to at 
least 13,300 cubic feet per second. 

The exportation of power by this company into the United States 
began in 1905, being less than 1,000 horsepower. It increased rap- 
idly from year to year to a maximum of about 52,000 horsepower 
in 1917, since which time it has been held down by the Hydro- 
electric Commission to 50,000 horsepower or a little less. 

In 1910 or 1911 the Ontario Power Co. entered into a contract 
with the Hydroelectric Power Commission of Ontario to supply it 
not less than 8,000 horsepower, and as much more as required up 
to 100,000 horsepower, at $9.40 per horsepower per annum for 
power at 12,000 volts until 25,000 horsepower is taken, and for $9 
per horsepower per annum for all additional power. These prices 
are increased $1 each for power supplied at 60,000 volts. The 
prices cover 24-hour continuous service, the power to be delivered 
to the commission's lines in Niagara Falls, Ontario. The agreement 
is for a term of 10 years with provision for three extensions of 10 
vears each. 



218 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power Co., formerly a sub- 
sidiary of the Ontario Power Co., made a contract with the Ontario 
Power Co., dated July 16, 1904, by which the latter agreed to supply 
the former at the international boundary line 60,000 horsepower, 
with the option that the amount might be increased to 180,000 horse- 
power. At the time of the sale of the Ontario Power Co,, August 1, 
1917, this contract was altered to cover a maximum amount of 50,000 
horsepower, and the date of expiration was changed from 2010 to 
1950. 

The general location of this plant is shown on plate No. 13. 

Toronto Power Go. — The power plant now generally spoken of as 
that of the Toronto Power Co. was constructed by the Electrical De- 
velopment Co. of Ontario (Ltd.). It diverts approximately 12,100 
cubic feet of water per second from Niagara River on the Canadian 
side above Horseshoe Falls. 

The Electrical Development Co. of Ontario (Ltd,) owns the hydro- 
electric power plant, franchises, etc., all of which are leased to the 
Toronto Power Co., which agrees to pay as rental the annual interest 
and sinking fund on the bonds, and, if net earnings from the leased 
property permit, dividends on the preferred stock. The outstand- 
ing capital stock of the Electrical Development Co. is $3,006,100 
common, of which the Toronto Power Co. owns $2,983,900; and 
$2,990,900 preferred, of which the Toronto Power Co. owns $2,990,600. 
The preferred stock is entitled to 6 per cent noncumulative divi- 
dends until January 1, 1910, and 6 per cent cumulative dividends 
thereafter. The outstanding bonds amount to $9,669,500, of which 
the Toronto Power Co. owns $5,014,000. The Electrical Develop- 
ment Co. owns or controls several subsidiary companies. 

The Toronto Power Co. capital stock authorized is $6,000,000 and 
issued is $3,000,000. The Toronto Railway Co. owns $2,000,000 of 
this direct, and the remaining $1,000,000 through a subsidiary com- 
pany. There is a "bonded debt," covering $4,100,200 of 5 per cent 
bonds, guaranteed by the Toronto Railway Co., issued to cover the 
preferred stock of the Electrical Development Co. held by the 
Toronto Power Co., and which is mortgaged to cover this issue. 
There is also an issue of 4^ per cent " debenture stock " amounting 
to $1,218,400, guaranteed by the Toronto Railway Co., and secured 
fay mortgage on $2,000,000 of Electrical Development Co. bonds, and 
four-fifths or more of Electrical Development Co. common stock. 
In addition there is an issue of 4J per cent " consolidated guaranteed 
debenture stock " to the amount of $15,140,500, guaranteed by the 
Toronto Railway Co., overlying the remaining $3,014,000 of Elec- 
trical Development Co.'s bonds and a few other securities. 

The general location of the power plant is shown on plate No. 13. 
The scheme of development involves a diverting dam or weir in 
the rapids, a power house parallel to and along the shore, a long, 
deep, narrow wheel pit running longitudinally under the power 
house, and a tailrace tunnel extending from the pit to a point be- 
neath the Horseshoe Falls. 

On January 29, 1903, the commissioners of Queen Victoria Niagara 
Falls Park granted a syndicate an irrevocable license to construct 
a hydroelectric plant in the park according to stipulated plans, and 
to develop thereby 125,000 horsepower. This grant was confirmed 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 219 

by order in council the following day. The syndicate was consoli- 
dated into the Electrical Development Co. of Ontario (Ltd.) on 
February 18, 1903, by royal letters patent, and on March -21, 1903, 
the rights of the syndicate were assigned to the company. This 
assignment was confirmed by the Ontario Legislature. 

The terms of the lease are identical with those of the lease to 
the Canadian Niagara Power Co., which have been stated previously. 
The date of the license is February 1, 1903. 

The plans of the company, which were approved, called for 11 
units of 12,500 nominal horsepower each, one unit being regarded as 
a spare. The quantity of water to be diverted was not specified, 
but was variously estimated in 1906 or earlier to be 10,800 cubic 
feet per second, and 11,200 cubic feet per second. 

The intake and power house are on the Canadian bank of the river 
about 3,000 feet above the Canadian end of Horseshoe Falls, and 
nearly midway between the intakes of the Ontario Power Co. and the 
Canadian Niagara Power Co. The intake is somewhat similar to 
that of the Ontario Power Co., while the power house arrangement 
is, to an extent, like that of the Canadian Niagara Power Co. 

A submerged weir or diverter similar to that of the Ontario 
Power Co.'s intake extends into the rapids, curving upstream and 
having its upper end open. The crest is at elevation 527, except at 
the inner end, which is dropped to elevation 524 to insure a good 
current across the curtain wall. The length of the weir is about 700 
feet. At the shore end of the weir is a curtain wall parallel to the 
shore and the power house, about 480 feet long, pierced by 23 arches, 
each 14J feet wide and 20J feet high, with their crests 5 feet below 
mean stage. Inside this wall is a long, narrow fore bay with an ice 
run at its lower end. The landward side of this fore bay is a similar 
curtain wall, which also forms the outer wall of the power house. 
Beyond it is an inclosed inner fore bay with another ice run. The 
racks are placed in this fore bay. This arrangement solves the ice 
problem almost perfectly, and this plant has less trouble with ice 
than any of the others. 

Behind the racks the water enters the 11 steel penstocks, each ap- 
proximately 11 feet in diameter. The upper end of each penstock 
can be closed by a gate. The penstocks descend into the wheelpit, 
first at an angle of about 45° and then vertically. The pit is 416 
feet long and 22 feet wide and is lined with brick. The finished 
bottom of the pit is about 145 feet below the water surface in the 
fore bay. The bottom of the pit does not form the tailrace as in the 
other plants of the " pit " type. Instead there are two tailrace tun- 
nels, one 520 and the other 580 feet long, parallel to the pit, one on 
each side at the bottom. 

There are 11 turbines in steel drums in the pit. Each has a single 
draft tube, and they discharge alternately left and right into the 
tailrace tunnels. These draft tubes are 9 feet in diameter and 70 or 
80 feet long, with two right-angled elbows and one obtuse elbow. 
They discharge upward into the bottoms of the tunnels. The ve- 
locity through them is about 17 or 18 feet per second. The loss of 
head due to friction is greater than the " draft-tube effect," hence 
the tubes are under pressure throughout their length and add 
nothing to the effective head. The first four turbines have cylinder 
gates and a capacity of 13,000 horsepower each. 



220 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The generators are in the power house, a large ornamental build- 
ing of Italian renaissance architecture. They are connected to the 
turbines by hollow steel shafts 115 feet long. Four of them are rated 
at 8,000 kilowatts and seven at 10,000 kilowatts each. They produce 
alternating current at 12,000 volts, 25 cycles. They are of the inter- 
nal revolving field type, and each one has its own exciter mounted 
on top of the large machine. There are two small turbine-driven 
exciter units in a chamber at the northwest end of the pit, but they 
are seldom used. 

The two tailrace tunnels unite a little ways from the pit to form 
the main tunnel. This is of horseshoe section, 23-| feet wide and 26 
feet high. It is 1,935 feet long, and has a descending grade of 5J feet 
per thousand. The last 300 feet of concrete lining at the portal 
is made in rings 6 feet long, calculated to break off as the fall re- 
cedes. The outfall or portal is behind the Horseshoe Falls, where 
its invert is at about elevation 366, some 12 feet or more above the 
usual water leA^el in the pool below at this point. 

The station is operated from a switchboard on a balcony in the 
power house. Cables laid in conduits carry the power to the trans- 
former house, 1,500 feet southwest of the power house. Here much 
of the power is transformed to 60,000 volts for transmission to 
Toronto over the lines of the Toronto & Niagara Power Co. About 
one-sixth of the total power developed is imported into the United 
States over the lines of the Canadian Niagara Power Co. 

The gross head of this installation from the intake in the Canadian 
rapids to the pool beneath the Horseshoe Falls is about 183 feet. 
From the best data available it appears that the plant is now divert- 
ing about 12,400 cubic feet per second, with which it generates about 
125,000 horsepower. This shows 10.1 horsepower per cubic foot per 
second, and an over-all efficiency of 49 per cent. 

The plant began p roducing power in 1906, and in 1907 power from 
it was first transmitted into the United States. In that year the 
exportation probably did not exceed 300 horsepower. It increased 
up to 8,000 or 9,000 horsepower in 1912, and then decreased, amount- 
ing to little or nothing in 1914 and 1915. In 1916 and 1917 it was 
nearly 20,000 horsepower, but decreased in the latter part of 1917 to 
about 15,000 horsepower. In 1914 the eleventh unit was installed. 
It was originally intended to be a spare, but the great demand for 
power, particularly during the war, led to its continuous use. It is 
understood that this continuous use was objected to by the Hydro- 
electric Commission of Ontario, except on condition that all the 
power produced because of it should be utilized in Canada and that 
certain differences between this company and the commission are now 
before the Ontario government for adjustment. 

International Railway Co. — A small power plant on the Canadian 
shore between the crest of Horseshoe Falls and the power house of 
the Canadian Niagara Power Co. diverts from the Niagara River for 
power development a quantity of water estimated at 125 cubic feet 
per second. 

The power rights for this plant were obtained on December 4, 1891, 
in an agreement between a syndicate of Canadian capitalists and the 
commissioners of Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park in connection 
with a project to build and operate an electric railway between 
Queenston and Chippewa. This agreement was confirmed, and a 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 221 

company, under title of the Niagara Falls Park & River Railway 
Co.* was incorporated by act of the Legislature of Ontario. On May 
3, 1894, a further agreement, subsequently confirmed, was made to 
cover the specific properties and construction rights involved. 

The lease covers a period of 40 years from September 1, 1892, and 
under certain conditions may be extended 20 years. The annual 
rental of $10,000 covers also the railway rights through the park. 
The amount of power to be generated or the quantity of water to be 
diverted are not specified, but under the charter of the company 
none of the power may be sold and none may be used except in operat- 
ing and lighting the railway. In 1906 it was estimated that the 
ultimate consumption of water would be 1,500 cubic feet per second 
and that the consumption at that time was 600 cubic feet per second. 

In 1900 the Buffalo Railway Co., of New York State, obtained 
Canadian incorporation, and in April, 1901, its Canadian rights were 
confirmed and extended. It purchased the properties, rights, etc., 
of the Niagara Falls Park & River Railway Co., paying $733,000 
for the equity and assuming the bonded indebtedness of $600,000. It 
was reported in 1906 that at the time of the purchase the power plant 
represented a cash outlay of $141,000, and that $125,000 additional 
for equipment had been expended up to 1906. 

In 1902 the name of the Buffalo Railway Co. was changed to In- 
ternational Railway Co. This company in October, 1903, applied to 
the park commissioners for approval of plans to transmit power from 
this plant to the American side to operate the extensive railway sys- 
tem in the State of New York. The request was not granted. The 
International Railway Co. operates the electric railways in Buffalo, 
Tonawanda, and Niagara Falls, N. Y., and elsewhere in Erie and 
Niagara Counties in New York State, as well as in Welland County, 
Ontario. It is in turn controlled by the United Gas & Electric 
Corporation, which controls a large number of public service cor- 
porations operating in 13 or more States. 

The intake and power house of this plant are about 500 feet above 
the Canadian end of the Horseshoe Falls. The intake is simply a 
channel leading directly from the rapids. It is about 260 feet long, 
from 62 to 130 feet wide, and about 5-J feet deep. Its entrance is 
guarded by piers and coarse racks. The plant contains two small 
vertical turbines which operate under a head of about 64 feet. These 
discharge into a tunnel which spills its water into the gorge through 
a portal in the side of the cliff upstream from the Ontario power 
house at about elevation 420. One of the turbines is connected by 
bevel gears and belts to six small direct-current generators rated at 
270 horsepower each. The other turbine is direct connected to a ver- 
tical direct-current generator rated at 2,000 horsepower. These ma- 
chines are operated in parallel at 650 volts. 

The average load of this plant is about 570 horsepower, of which 
about 175 horsepower is imported into the United States. The water 
consumed would seem, from the best data available, to be about 125 
cubic feet per second. This corresponds to an over-all efficiency of 
45 per cent and a power production of 4.6 horsepower per cubic foot 
per second. The tunnel spills its water far above the Maid-of-the- 
Mist Pool. The gross head measured to the surface of this pool is 
165 feet, and the over-all efficiency on this basis is only 25 per cent. 

The location of the power house is shown on Plate No. 13. 



222 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Water works of Niagara Falls, Ontario. — The city of Niagara 
Falls, Ontario, derives its supply of water for domestic use and fire 
protection from the intake of the International Railway Co.'s power 
house. From the north corner of this intake a conduit about 500 
feet long leads the water under the park to a small pumping station 
near the crest of the Horseshoe Falls. Here part of the water is 
pumped into the city mains, the remainder furnishing the power to 
do the pumping. This latter portion is then discharged through a 
tunnel with an outfall near that of the International Railway Co. 
The elevation of the outfall is about 477 feet. The amount of water 
used is not known, but it certainly does not exceed 50 cubic feet per 
second. The water wheels are reported to be of 500 horsepower total 
capacity. The head used by the pumping machinery is about 25 feet. 

As this diversion is made solely for sanitary and domestic purposes 
it is not to be included as part of the 36,000 cubic feet per second 
permitted to be diverted for power development on the Canadian side 
of the river, but rather as one of the diversions which are covered 
by the last sentence of Article V of the treaty. 

The location of the pumping station is shown on plate No. 13. 

New plant of Ontario Hydro -Electric Power Commission. — The 
Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario is now building a 
new power development on the Canadian side. The following de- 
scription of this project is based largely on an article in the Engi- 
neering News Record for October 31, 1918, and partly on other in- 
formation. 

The contemplated diversion is 10,000 cubic feet per second. The 
water is to be taken from the upper river at the mouth of the Welland 
River (Chippawa Creek) and flow up the Welland River nearly to 
the village of Montrose. This section of the river is to be dredged to 
a depth' of 25 to 30 feet with a mean width of about 200 feet. The 
length of this section is about 3.6 miles. Leaving the river the 
water passes through a canal nearly 9 miles long to a fore bay at 
the edge of the Gorge a mile above Queenston. Location of the 
route is shown on Plate No. 6. The wetted section of this canal is 
48 feet wide and 30 to 35 feet deep. It is mostly in rock with chan- 
neled sides and concrete lining. The cuts on this canal are very 
heavy. The maximum depth of rock cut is 85 feet and of earth 
more than 100, while the greatest total cut is 140 feet, of which about 
75 is rock. The canal crosses the deep ravine west of the Whirlpool 
on an artificial fill. 

It is worthy of note that the rock surface in this region dips to the 
west and this canal has a less proportion of rock excavation than 
one on the American side would have. A few miles farther west 
the New Welland Canal is being excavated almost entirely in earth. 
On the other hand an American canal would cut across the angle of 
the river and its length from intake to fore bay would be only about 
one-third that of the Canadian route. 

The fore bay at the top of the cliff is approximately 300 hj 1,000 
feet. From it the water passes through six penstocks to the power 
house in the Gorge. Here there are to be six vertical units rated at 
52,500 horsepower each, a total of 315,000 horsepower. The " net " 
head is 304 feet, and 300,000 horsepower is expected to be obtained 
from 10,000 cubic feet per second, or 30 horsepower per cubic foot 
per second. The estimated cost is only $25,000,000, or $83 per horse- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 223 

power. It is hinted that this is only the first of a series of such 
developments contemplated, with an ultimate diversion of 36,000 
cubic feet per second. 

In the light of the studies described in Section F of this report it 
must be said that these estimates seem altogether too optimistic. 
A rough computation of the power output and cost on a basis com- 
parable to that of the projects discussed in Section F give a power 
output of 294,000 horsepower, or 29.4 horsepower per cubic foot per 
second, and a total cost of $42,000,000, or $143 per horsepower. This 
high cost as compared with the American projects is due almost en- 
tirely to the great length of canal required by this scheme. 

While the canal is being built large enough for a diversion of 
10,000 cubic feet per second, it is understood that the Hydroelectric 
Commission maintains that the present diversions on the Canadian 
side amount to 30,000 cubic feet per second and intends to install at 
present only sufficient machinery to utilize the 6,000 cubic feet per 
second thus estimated to remain under the treaty. 

It appears that the present Canadian diversions really amount to 
about 33,325 cubic feet per second, and that when the Ontario Power 
Co.'s new units are put in service the amount will be more than 
35,400. This would leave less than 600 cubic feet per second available 
for the new plant. Apparently, therefore, the commission must shut 
down part of the Ontario Power Co. plant when ready to start 
operating the new plant or else secure an extension of the treaty 
limit. 

Niagara Falls Power Co. — The two power houses of the Niagara 
Falls plant of this company take water from a short canal on the 
American side above Goat Island and discharge it through a long 
tailrace tunnel into the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool. The 21 units of this 
plant have a rated capacity of 5,000 horsepower each. The permit 
from the Secretary of War authorizes the diversion of 10,000 cubic 
feet of water per second. About 750 cubic feet of this is leased to 
the International Paper Co., but is not now being used by them. The 
Niagara Falls plant is now using about 9,450 cubic feet per second, 
with which it produces about 100,000 horsepower. This is a pro- 
duction of 10.6 horsepower per cubic foot per second and represents 
on the gross head of 219 feet an overall efficiency of 43 per cent. 

A detailed history and description of the works of this company 
will be found in Section F of this report. 

Hydraulic Power Co. — This company has been consolidated with 
the Niagara Falls Power Co., and the plant is now known as the 
" hydraulic plant " of the Niagara Falls Power Co. The two power- 
houses are in the Gorge on the American side about half a mile below 
the American Falls. They get their supply of water through a canal 
from Port Day about a mile above the Falls. The permit authorizes 
the diversion of 9,500 cubic feet per second. Of this the Pettebone- 
Cataract Paper Co. gets 271 cubic feet per second. Station 2 has 9 
units, with a total rated capacity of 21.200 horsepower, and station 3 
has 13 units, of a total rated capacity of 130,000 horsepower This 
plant is now producing about 145,000 horsepower from 7,840 cubic feet 
per second. This is a production of 1 8.5 horsepower per cubic foot per 
second and corresponds to an overall efficiency of 75 per cent under 
the gross head of 219 feet. Three new units with a total capacity of 
more than 100,000 horsepower are now being installed. 



224 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

A detailed history and description of this plant will be found in 
Section F of this report. 

The Petteo one-Cataract Paper Co. — The Pettebone- Cataract Paper 
Co. diverts a small amount of water from the Hydraulic Power Co.'s 
canal for the manufacture of flour and paper. Its plant is described 
in Section F of this report. The company now uses about 271 cubic 
feet per second, from which it obtains perhaps 2,000 horsepower, or 
7.4 horsepower per cubic foot per second. As the gross head of this 
plant is about 93 feet, the over-all efficiency is 70 per cent, but the 
tail water is rejected high up the bank, wasting a head of approxi- 
mately 125 feet. 

The International Paper Co. formerly diverted about 720 cubic 
feet per second from the canal of the Niagara Falls Power Co. for 
operating its large paper mill. This plant is briefly described in 
Section F of this report. The turbines have been removed and no 
water is now used by this company, but it is understood that they 
retain their old rights and intend to install new wheels. 

Cataract Hotel plant. — There was formerly a small power plant 
in the basement of the Cataract Hotel, in Niagara Falls, N. Y. This 
took water from the American Rapids near the head of Goat Island 
by means of a wing dam and canal and discharged it through a tail- 
race tunnel into the same rapids near the Goat Island bridge. The 
hotel had certain water rights from the State of New York. When 
the State formed the present park the commissioners caused the 
greater part of the canal to be replaced by a brick-lined underground 
conduit 7 or 8 feet in diameter. The wing dam and upper part of 
the canal were retained, and still remain in the park. 

The gross head of this plant is about 24 feet. Its one small turbine 
was operated intermittently until the fall of 1913 to run the hotel 
laundry. The amount of the diversion is unknown, but it was prob- 
ably much less than 100 cubic feet per second. No permit for this 
diversion was ever granted by the Secretary of war. 

In the fall of 1913 the present owner of the hotel, Mr. John F. 
MacDonald, removed the old machinery and purchased a modern 
hydroelectric unit, rated at 400 horsepower, which he proposed to 
install in its place. Owing to the refusal of the New York State 
authorities to allow the replacement of the old headgate of the con- 
duit by new ones, this development has never been completed, and no 
water is now being diverted. The plant could probably use between 
200 and 300 cubic feet per second. Mr. MacDonald is the promoter 
of the Empire Power Corporation, which desires to develop a large 
power plant on the site of the Cataract Hotel, as described in Section 
F of this report. 

Comparison of plants. — The plants described above differ in gross 
head from 24 to 313 feet. Some make efficient use of the water di- 
verted under the head which they have and others do not. Table 
No. 18 assembles the diversions, outputs, and efficiencies of these 
plants so that they may readily be compared. It should be noted 
that the horsepower per cubic foot per second is the figure which 
shows the relative success of the different plants in obtaining power 
from their diversions, while the over- all efficiency shows whether or 
not the installation is up to date. Where this latter figure is less 
than 80 per cent the output of the plant is not as great as it should 
be for the given gross head. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 225 
Table No. 18. — Diversion data on Niagara Falls pov.er plants. 



Plant. 



Canadian Niagara Power Co 

Ontario Power Co 

Toronto Power Co 

Internationa] Ry. Co 

Hydro-Electric Power Commission ">. 

Niagara Falls Power Co 

Hydraulic Power Co 

International Paper Co 

Pet teb one-Cataract Paper Co 

Cataract Hotel 



Diversion. 



Power 

output. 



Cubic feet 

per second. 

9.600 

11,200 

12, 400 

125 

i 10, 000 

9,450 

7.840 



271 



Horse- 
power. 
100, 000 
163,000 
125, 000 
570 
294,000 
100, 000 
145, 000 



>,000 



Gross 
head. 



Horsepower 

per cubic feet 

per second. 



Feet.; 

173 

215 

183 

91 

1313 

219 

219 

219 

93 

24 



10.4 
14.6 
10.1 
4.6 
129.4 
10.6 
18.5 



7.4 



Overp.ll 

efficien- 
cy. 



P.ct. 

53 
60 
49 
45 

183 
43 

2 75 



3 70 



1 Now under construction. 

2 The Hydraulic Power Co. has 3 types ofmachjnes with widely different overall efficiencies, as follows: 
Station 2, 57 per cent; direct current units in station 3, 77 per cent; alternating current units in station 3 
81 per cent. 

3 Gross head taken at mouth of outfall. 

This table shows that of the five existing large plants, that of the 
Hydraulic Power Co. is hy far the most efficient, while the Ontario 
Power Co. is next, and the other three are about equally poor. Any 
future development ought to be planned for an over-all efficiency of 
more than 80 per cent, and ought to give over 20 horsepower per 
cubic foot per second if it discharges into the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, 
or over 29 if it discharges into the Lower Rapids. 

Total diversions. — The actual total diversion of water by the power 
plants at Niagara Falls is shown by the above table to be 17,561 
cubic feet per second on the American side, and 33,325 cubic feet per 
second on the Canadian side, a grand total of 50,886 cubic feet per 
second. This produces 635,570 horsepower, or 12.5 horsepower per 
cubic foot per second. 



7. ST. LAWRENCE RIVER NAVIGATION CANALS. 

The amount of power developed upon the St. Lawrence River navi- 
gation canals is very small and the diversions for the purpose corre- 
spondingly small. Because of their slight importance no attempt 
has been made to determine them with accuracy. It should be noted, 
however, that the potential power in the river at each of these canals 
is large, and its development in the course of time seems almost cer- 
tain. 

For each of the canals considered in the following paragraphs a 
general description and a statement of its navigation features is to be 
found in Section A of this report. The canals are shown on plates 
Nos. 9 and 10, the power sites being indicated. 

Galop Canal. — It is believed that an average diversion of 400 to 
800 cubic feet of water per second is made at the Galop Canal for 
power development. The major portion of this quantity is conveyed 
down the old canal to a point southeast of the village of Cardinal, 
where it is used under a 6-foot head by the Edwardsburg Starch 
"Works in its manufacturing process. This installation is reported to 
be 200 horsepower. At 50 per cent over-all efficiency this development 
would require a flow of 590 cubic feet per second. The plant is old 
and it might be even less efficient. On October 6, 1914, the flow to 
27880—21 15 



226 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

this plant was carefully measured and found to be 480 cubic feet per 
second. The discharge from the mill enters the river through a gap 
in the old canal wall. 

At Iroquois there are two small power plants with a 14- foot head. 
That belonging to M. F. Beach is listed at 40 horsepower, while the 
other, which is the water-works, pumping and electric-light plant of 
the town of Iroquois, is listed at 90 horsepower. The plant belong- 
ing to Mr. Beach contains modern vertical-shaft generating units 
whose efficiency might be 75 per cent. In this case the maximum 
quantity of water required is 34 cubic feet per second. The plant 
is operated only intermittently to run a gristmill and light part of 
the town of Iroquois. The town plant is old and its efficiency might 
be 50 per cent or less. At 50 per cent efficiency it would require a 
maximum of 115 cubic feet of water per second. It is not operated 
continuously. On October 6, 1914, the flow through the "Cardinal 
Cut" was accurately measured and found to be 260 cubic feet per 
second. This volume of flow covered the demand at that time for 
power development at these two plants, the waste over the weir at 
Lock 25, any possible lockage at Lock 25, and seepage and evapora- 
tion. These two plants at Iroquois are located northwest of Lock 25, 
the chamber of old Lock No. 25 forming part of the common tail- 
race. 

Momsburg Canal. — At the lower end of the Morrisburg Canal 
there are three small water-power plants owned by the city of Mor- 
risburg. The head on each is approximately 11 feet. One has an 
800 kilo volt- ampere generator, requiring 1,000 cubic feet of water 
per second for full load; another is a 300-horsepower city lighting 
plant requiring 300 cubic feet per second; and the third is the city 
water works, requiring 55 cubic feet per second for power. The total 
consumption of the three plants, namely, 1,355 cubic feet per second, 
is not continuous. On October 10, 1914, the flow in the canal was 
measured and found to be 950 cubic feet per second. This repre- 
sented the entire use of water just at that time for both navigation 
and power purposes. It is believed that the average use for power 
development runs from 800 to 1,400 cubic feet per second. 

In wintertime accumulations of ice downstream sometimes cause 
a backwater rise which occasionally reaches a height of 12 feet. 

Cornwall Canal. — The flow in the Cornwall Canal has never been 
measured so far as is known. There is a development at Mille Roche, 
5 miles below the head of the canal, and there are 5 developments at 
Cornwall, as shown in Table No. 19. 

Table No. 19. — Water-power developments on Cornwall Canal. 



Location. 


Nor- 
mal 
head. 


Horse- 
power 
devel- 
oped. 


Water 
used. 


Name of power user. 


Mille Roches 

Lock 18 


Feet. 
28 

n 

20" 

20 

20 


2,000 
800 

50 
2,900 

80 

50 


Cubic feet 

per second. 

800 

150 

10 

1,800 

50 

30 


St. Lawrence Power Co. 
Toronto Paper Manufacturing Co. 


Do 


Cornwall City Pumping Plant. 
Canada Cotton Co. 


Lock 17 


Do 


Cornwall Electric Light & Ry. Co.; Stormont Electric 


Do 


Light & Power Co. 
Hodge Flour Mill. 




Total 




5,880 


2,840 





DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 227 

A total diversion of nearly 3,000 cubic feet of water per second 
for power purposes is indicated, but the full amount is not used 
continuously. It is understood that in wintertime the plants at 
Cornwall are bothered considerably by backwater caused by accumu- 
lations of frazil ice in the comparatively quiet waters of Lake St. 
Francis. This backwater sometimes rises to a height of 15 to 30 
feet above normal level. 

Other canals. — Considerable power is developed along the Sou- 
langes Canal and the Lachine Canal. The old Beauharnois Canal 
is used solely for power development. These canals, as already ex- 
plained in Section A, are along that portion of the St. Lawrence 
which is entirely Canadian, and hence is considered to be outside 
the territory involved in this investigation. The largest single de- 
velopment is that of the Cedars Rapids Manufacturing & Power Co., 
on the north side of the river at Cedars Rapids. This plant utilizes 
a 30-foot head, developing approximately 130,000 horsepower, of 
which more than 60,000 horsepower is transmitted into the United 
States over a 110,000-volt line for consumption by the Aluminum Co. 
of America at Massina, N. Y. The designed contemplate an ultimate 
use of 56,000 cubic feet of water per second, generating 150,000 
horsepower. 

8. MASSENA CANAL. 

The St. Lawrence River Power Co., which is controlled by the 
Aluminum Co. of America, diverts about 30,000 cubic feet of water 
per second from the St. Lawrence River at the head of the Long 
Sault Rapids in the State of New York, returning this water to the 
St. Law r rence at the mouth of Grasse River, lOf miles downstream 
from the point of diversion. 

The St. Lawrence River Power Co. was incorporated July 19, 
1902, as successor to the St. Lawrence Power Co., which was sold 
under foreclosure. It has authorized an outstanding $3,500,000 
common stock and authorized $3,500,000 preferred stock, $3,000,000 
of Avhich is outstanding. All outstanding stock is owned by the 
St. Lawrence Securities Co., which was formed by the Aluminum Co. 
of America in 1906, and is owned by it. The St. Lawrence River 
Power Co. has no bonded debt. 

The canal and other main works of this company are shown on 
Plate No. 10. 

The head of the Massena Canal is in the South Sault Channel, 
about 1 mile below Talcotts Point, which is at the head of the South 
Sault Rapids. In this reach of the river the power company has 
dredged a channel 150 feet wide and 14 or more feet deep, leading 
toward the head of the canal. 

The canal extends in a southeasterly direction from its entrance. 
16,200 feet to the Grasse River at Massena, N. Y. It has a bottom 
width of 188 feet, depth of 25 feet, and side slopes of 1 on lj. The 
effective wetted cross-section is about 5,500 square feet. It passes 
through two ridges, each over 2,000 feet long, requiring maximum 
cuts of 80 and 90 feet, respectively. The excavation was almost 
wholly in earth. The canal was designed to be navigable. Of the 
three bridges which cross it one has 60 feet of headroom and the other 
two have lift draw spans. 



228 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The power house stands at the end of the canal, its foundation 
forming a dam across the canal, and its face, on the tailrace side, 
extending along the north shore of Grasse River. The old and new 
power houses form one continuous structure. In the new power house 
there are five vertical shaft units. Each shaft carries two turbine 
runners, mounted one above the other in an open concrete stall. 
There is a separate draft tube for each runner, the two tubes uniting 
in a common tailrace under the river wall of the power house. Four 
of these units drive direct-current generators, and one drives an 
alternator, each generator being direct connected on the upper end 
of the shaft. Both the turbines and the generators are of Allis- 
Chalmers manufacture, and each unit is said to have a nominal rat- 
ing of 6,000 horsepower. The old power house contains eight hori- 
zontal shaft units of 5,000 horsepower each. These units consist in 
each case of six separate turbine runners of 1,000 horsepower each 
on the same horizontal shaft in a concrete stall, and a single generator 
on the end of the shaft in the generator room. Four of the turbines 
are Dayton Globe Iron Works machines, two of which drive Bullock 
direct-current generators, while the other two drive Westinghouse 
direct-current generators. The other four turbines are I. P. Morris 
machines, two driving General Electric direct-current generators, and 
two driving Westinghouse alternating- current generators. 

The tailrace of the plant is formed by the Grasse River, which 
runs nearly parallel to the St. Lawrence, and, in this locality, within 
3J miles of it. It is 7 miles along Grasse River from the power house 
to the St. Lawrence. Originally, this reach of the Grasse River was 
250 to 300 feet wide and very shallow. Dredging performed in 
1914 to 1918 produced a channel 200 to 600 feet wide and 14 or more 
feet deep throughout the 7 miles, the current in which is less than 
3J miles per hour. 

The discharge into the upper end of the South Sault Rapids was 
normally about 50,000 cubic feet per second, or, roughly, one-fifth 
of the entire flow of the St. Lawrence. The fall from the head of 
the Massena Canal to the mouth of Grasse River was approximately 
43 feet. Until recently when operating to capacity the power com- 
pany lost about 7 feet of head in the Grasse River and 2^ feet in the 
canal, leaving a head of 33J feet on the plant, under which about 
80,000 horsepower was produced with a use of 30,000 cubic feet of 
water per second. In winter time there was a great deal of trouble 
with floating ice, anchor ice, and frazil, and the power house could 
be operated at only a fraction of its summer capacity, the head at 
the power house often being reduced to 25 feet, the flow of water to 
5,000 cubic feet per second, and the power output to 10,000 horse- 
power. 

In an endeavor to remedy ice difficulties, and as a temporary ex- 
pedient to provide more power for the manufacture of munitions of 
war, the company constructed ice-diverting works of special design 
at Talcotts Point in the summer and autumn of 1918, and a sub- 
merged rock dam across the South Sault Channel just downstream 
from the canal entrance. As a result of these works and the mild 
winter of 1918-19 the difficulties with ice were greatly minimized, 
and the plant was able to maintain an output of 45,000 to 55,000 horse- 
power. Furthermore, because of the increased head of about 3 feet 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 229 

at the head of the canal, the consequent increased carrying capacity 
of the canal, and the increased discharging capacity of Grasse River 
due to dredging, the head at the power house has been increased 8 
or 9 feet. The fall in the canal has been reduced to approximately 1 
foot and the fall in Grasse River to about 2J feet. An output of 
60,000 horsepower is now produced with a consumption of only 17,000 
cubic feet of water per second. Under these conditions the fall in 
Grasse River was about 2 feet and the head at the power house about 
43 feet. Nearly all the power is used in the near-by work of the 
Aluminum Co. of America. A very small amount is used for lighting 
and pumping at Massena. 

The St. Lawrence Power Co., which originated the development of 
this plant, was incorporated in New York State in 1896. Construc- 
tion work was undertaken soon after, and had progressed to a point 
in 1902 where 35,000 horsepower was available. Owing to its rela- 
tively inaccessible location no market for the power was developed 
and the project became a financial failure. Foreclosure proceedings 
were undertaken on behalf of the bondholders, and on July 3, 1902, 
the property and franchises were sold to Mark T. Cox, one of the 
incorporators of the St. Lawrence River Power Co., for $500,000. 
It was reported that up to that time the development had cost more 
than $10,000,000, the funds being supplied by English capitalists. 

9. LITTLE RIVER AT WADDINGTON, N. Y. 

Ogden Island, formerly known as Crapseys Island, forms the 
southerly shore of the Rapide Plat. These rapids and the Morrisburg 
Canal following their northerly shore, have been described in Sec- 
tion A of this report. The channel between Ogden Island, which is 
United States territory, and the American main shore is known as 
Little River. It is approximately 3 J miles long, 600 to 1,500 feet 
wide, and generally shallow, the midstream depth varying from 6 to 
35 feet. On the mainland, a little below mid length of Little River, 
is situated the town of Waddington, N. Y., 18 miles downstream from 
Ogdensburg, N. Y. 

At Waddington there is a dam 950 feet long across Little River 
which was originally built more than 100 years ago. It is reported to 
have been constructed of stone originally, but the present structure 
appears to be largely of wooden cribs filled with bowlders, a part of 
the length being dry rubble wall. It is very dilapidated and leaky. 
The head of water on the dam is approximately 10 feet. 

At the downstream side of the dam, near midstream, is a small 
power house owned by the New York & Ontario Power Co. It con- 
tains a 39-inch Victor turbine, whose maximum discharge at full 
gate is about 110 cubic feet per second. It drives a generator which 
furnishes power for lighting the village of Waddington from sunset 
to 1 o'clock a. m. daily. Its power may also be used for pumping 
water for fire protection and street flushing. 

A power canal 15 to 20 feet wide leads from the south end of the 
dam downstream along the bank of the river for about 950 feet. It 
serves four small plants. Beginning near the dam there is a small 
sawmill owned by the New York & Ontario Power Co. and operated 
by Dunn & Rutherford, of Waddington. It has an old-stjde, wooden 
scroll, central discharge wheel which is very wasteful of water, using 



230 DIVEKSIOST OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

200 to 300 cubic feet per second when operating, but which is run 
only part of the year. Below the sawmill is a blacksmith shop in 
which small tools are driven by a wooden, central discharge wheel 
using not more than 50 cubic feet of water per second. Below the 
blacksmith shop is a plant for separating cream from milk. It uses 
a wheel similar to that at the blacksmith shop and requires not more 
than 50 cubic feet per second. The fourth plant is below the separa- 
tor and is a planing mill which is not in use more than one month a 
year. It has a wooden scroll, central discharge wheel requiring not 
more than 100 cubic feet per second. To recapitulate, the approxi- 
mate amount of water used in all water-power plants on Little River 
is given in Table No. 20. 

Table No. 20. — Little River water power — approximate present use of water in 

cubic feet per second. 

Electric lighting and pumping station 110 

Sawmill 300 

Blacksmith shop 50 

Separating plant 50 

Planing mill 100 

Total — 610 

This quantity is about the same as that used in 1899. 

About 900 feet upstream from the dam and parallel with it, there 
is a dike built partly of wooden cribs and partly solid fill. Toward 
the island end there are two openings or gaps in the dike spanned 
by small wagon bridges, one opening being 42 feet wide and the 
other 30 feet wide. On June 15, 1914, the flow of water through 
these gaps was gauged by current meter. The flow through the north 
gap was 1,850 cubic feet per second, and that through the south gap 
750 cubic feet per second. The drop in water level from upstream to 
downstream side of the dike was found by leveling to be 1.5 feet. 
The leakage through the dike was estimated roughly to be 600 cubic 
feet per second. Altogether the flow through Little Eiver was thus 
3,200 cubic feet per second, a quantity which was 1.1 per cent of the 
total discharge of the St. Lawrence Kiver at that time. 

The right to construct the dam was originally granted to David 
A. and Thomas L. Ogden by act of the New York State Legislature 
April 1, 1808 (chapter 121, Laws of New York, 1808). This act 
conferred on these men and their associates for a term of 75 years 
the right to construct a dam and lock at Waddington, and to use 
the water impounded by the dam for the generation of power for 
any commercial purpose. On April 17, 1826, an act was passed 
(chapter 280, Laws of New York, 1826), setting forth the following : 

David A. Ogden, of the county of St. Lawrence, being proprietor of both 
sides of the branch of the River St. Lawrence, in the town of Madrid (Wadding- 
ton), and across which river he has erected a dam and locks in pursuance of 
an act passed April 1, 1908, shall, and he is hereby declared to be vested with 
all the rights of the people of this State to the lands situated below the said 
dam, and which by reason thereof has been rendered susceptible to improve- 
ment and extending down the branch of the said river from the said dam to 
the navigable waters thereof, to have and to hold to the said David A. Ogden, 
his heirs and assigns forever. 

These two acts therefore vested in David A. Ogden and his suc- 
cessors in perpetuity all riparian rights on both sides of Little Eiver, 
ownership of the bed of the river below the dam, and the right to 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 231 

utilize the natural flow of the stream for the development of 
hydraulic power for any purpose whatsoever. The natural flow of 
Little River is reported to have been 26,000 cubic feet per second. 

The New York & Ontario Power Co. now holds all these rights and 
privileges. This company was incorporated in New York State 
April 18, 1906, to furnish light and power to municipalities and 
industries in northern New York. It has an authorized capital 
stock of $2,000,000, of which $225,000 is outstanding. Its bonded 
indebtedness is $200,000, the authorized bond issue being $457,000. 
This company proposes to build a new dam about 1,000 feet down- 
stream from the old one, remove the old dam and dike, dredge the 
channel, and construct remedial works, consisting of a submerged 
rock weir across the Rapide Plat at the head of the Morrisburg 
Canal, and a diversion wall from the foot of Ogden Island to 
Canada Island. With a use of about 30,000 cubic feet of water 
per second this company expects to develop 30,000 horsepower. Ap- 
plication for a permit has been made to the Secretary of War, and 
the matter has been referred to the International Joint Commission. 
A hearing was held by the commission October 1, 1918. 

About 1911 the New York & Ontario Power Co. made a contract 
with the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario for the 
delivery of 15,000 horsepower at a sliding scale of rates varying 
from $13 per horsepower per annum for the first 2,000 horsepower 
down to $10.50 for each horsepower per annum above 10,000. The 
Hydro. Commission constructed a transmission line for a distance 
along the north side of the St. Lawrence River, and a start was 
made on construction of the river crossing to Ogden Island, just 
above Morrisburg. The power company failed to build its plant, 
however, and to fulfill its part of the contract. 

The location of this project is shown on plate No. 9. 

10. LONG SATJLT RAPIDS PROJECT. 

The Long Sault Rapids of the St. Lawrence River and the South 
Sault Rapids are shown on Plate No. 10. In the South Sault Rapids 
from Delany Island to the foot of Long Sault Island there is a fall 
of 32 feet, and from this point to the foot of Barnhart Island the 
fall is about 12 feet, giving a total head of 44 feet. The entire fall 
from Richards Landing to mouth of Grasse River is 48 feet, and from 
the head of the Cornwall Canal to the mouth of Grasse River it 
is 45 feet. 

The average elevation of Lake Ontario for the 59 years, 1860 
to 1918, both inclusive, was 246.18 feet. Under present conditions 
at this stage of the lake the St. Lawrence River discharges 241,000 
cubic feet of water per second. Normally about 48,000 cubic feet 
per second of this went down the South Sault Rapids. At Barnhart 
Island the division appears to be, roughly, 226,000 south of Barn- 
hart Island, 12,000 between Barnhart and Sheek Islands, and 3,000 
through the Cornwall Canal north of Sheek Island. 

On May 23, 1907, the Long Sault Development Co. was incor- 
porated in New York to develop the power of the Long Sault and 
South Sault Rapids (chapter 355 Laws of New York, 1907). This 
company was owned by the St. Lawrence Securities Co., which in 



232 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

turn is owned by the Aluminum Co. of America. Its authorized 
capital stock was $1,000,000. The plans of this company involved 
a development of the Long Sault Rapids which required a dam 
3,800 feet long across these rapids between Barnhart and Long Sault 
Islands, a dam 1,450 feet long between Barnhart Island and the 
bank of the Cornwall Canal at Lock 20, excavation of a channel 
1,000 feet wide between Barnhart and Sheek Islands, and excava- 
tion of a channel through the lower end of Barnhart Island to two 
power houses at the water's edge. The head at these power houses 
was to be about 40 feet. The plans also included a development of 
the South Sault Rapids by a dam and power house at the east end 
of Long Sault Island, where a head of 35 feet was to be obtained. 
At mean stage, and 80 per cent over-all efficiency, the indicated horse- 
power is 1,027,000. At a low-river stage the power production would 
fall to 600,000 horsepower. 

The company proceeded to purchase the whole of Barnhart Island, 
the lower half of Long Sault Island, all of the American main shore 
from the Massena Canal down to a point opposite the foot of Barn- 
hart Island, and much other land on the islands and main shores 
in the vicinity, including all the riparian rights deemed necessary. 
It also undertook extensive engineering investigations related to 
the project. 

To obtain the necessary congressional authority, a bill was intro- 
duced into the House of Representatives in February, 1907. This 
was later withdrawn, and in December, 1909, another bill was intro- 
duced. This also was withdrawn. Bills were introduced also in 
January, 1911, and 1912, but failed of passage, and no Federal au- 
thority was ever granted for the project. 

Meantime the authority of the Parliament of Canada was also 
sought, but without success, there being much opposition to any at- 
tempt to develop the power of these rapids before Canada had devel- 
oped a market capable of absorbing half the power produced. The 
navigation interests of Canada were unalterably opposed to obstruct- 
ing the rapids. Much stress was laid on the danger of destructive 
ice blockades and their attendant floods. 

The matter was referred to the International Waterways Commis- 
sion which held public hearings by the full commission October 24, 
1907, and November 21, 1908, at Toronto, and February 26, 1909, 
at Buffalo ; and by the Canadian section of the commission November 
6, 1907, at Montreal, and February 8, 1910, at Toronto. The Cana- 
dian members, however, failed to report, so that no report by the 
commission as a whole was possible. The American section reported 
favorably to the proposition on March 11, 1910. 

In May, 1911, the constitutionality of the State grant was chal- 
lenged, and on December 30, 1912, the attorney general of the State 
of New York rendered his opinion that the act granting the charter 
was unconstitutional. An act to repeal the act of incorporation was 
passed May 8, 1913 (chapter 452, Laws of New York, 1913). This 
act appropriated $36,320 with which to refund the company the 
money paid by it into the State treasury. On the same date another 
act was passed empowering the State board of claims to adjudicate 
upon any claims that might be presented by the Long Sault Develop- 
ment Co. (chapter 453, Laws of New York, 1913). 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 233 

The company claimed it had expended one and three-quarter mil- 
lion dollars or more in this enterprise, and argued that it should be 
reimbursed by the State. 

In 1913 the court of appeals upheld the State's contentions. No 
reimbursement for development expenditures was allowed. In De- 
cember, 1916, the United States Supreme Court handed down a deci- 
sion declaring the charter of the Long Sault Development Co. uncon- 
stitutional and otherwise upholding the contentions of the State of 
Xew York. 

11. ERIE & ONTARIO SANITARY CANAL. 

The project of the Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. involves a 
diversion of 26,000 cubic feet of water per second from Lake Erie, 
just south of Buffalo, with which it is proposed to develop 800,000 
horsepower. The project as a whole and its navigation features in 
particular have been described in Section A of this report, and its 
sanitary features in Section B. In Section F will be found a treaV 
ment of the power features in considerable detail. 

W. S. Richmond. 



Appendix B. 
FIELD AND OFFICE OPERATIONS. 



[Section D of Mr. Richmond's Report.] 

At the beginning of this investigation operations were confined to 
office studies, conferences, and correspondence until the middle of 
September, when authorities had been secured and plans perfected 
for undertaking the field work which was essential to a compre- 
hensive consideration of that portion of the investigation pertain- 
ing to Niagara Falls and the Niagara River. Following the assem- 
bling of field force and equipment and the securing of civil and mili- 
tary permits to enter private property and the carefully guarded 
grounds and plants along both sides of the Niagara River actual field 
work was commenced September 20, 1917. 

Great difficulties were met with in securing proper assistance, due 
to war conditions. Eventually most of the technical personnel was 
drawn from the staff of the United States Lake Survey. In all 18 
men were employed upon the field work, although the greatest num- 
ber engaged at any one time was 15. 

The extreme and long continued cold weather for which the winter 
of 1917-18 was noted was a further handicap to the rapid prosecu- 
tion of the work. Temperatures below zero prevailed for days at a 
time, causing great hardship to the working force and delaying much 
of the work, particularly the rock sounding. This job was com- 
pleted on February 8, 1918, and this day marked the completion of 
the field work except for minor items of reconnaissance. 

Survey of Horseshoe Rapids. — The most difficult portion of the 
field work was the survey of the rapids of the Niagara River just 
above the Horseshoe Falls. The purpose of this survey was to pro- 
vide data on the depth of water, its direction, and velocity of flow 
throughout a reach of rapids extending about one-half mile upstream 
from the Horseshoe Falls; also to obtain actual elevations above 
standard datum of the water surface at various points. This data 
was essential, first, to an intelligent study of the preservation of 
the Horseshoe Falls from destructive erosion and the matter of in- 
creasing its beauty by a better distribution of water along its crest ; 
second, in estimating the total quantity of water which may safely 
be diverted from the Nigara River above the Falls. 

The area to be surveyed lay between the crest of the Falls and the 
First Cascade. Its greatest length was 4,000 feet, and its greatest 
width 3,000 feet. Within this area the depth varies greatly, with a 
maximum of more than 10 feet. The velocity of the current ranges 
from 4 to more than 23 feet per second, and there are many cas- 
cades, standing waves, and areas of broken water. It is not safe 
for a boat to approach closer than within 1 mile of the upstream 
limit of the survey. 
234 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 235 

To measure depths and current velocities under these very ad- 
verse conditions was an undertaking of no small difficulty. The 
method finally adopted was a development of that used by the United 
States Lake Survey in 1906 and 1907 for somewhat similar work 
under much more favorable conditions. Briefly, it consisted of send- 
ing rod floats of known submerged lengths through the rapids and 
locating their positions at frequent intervals by intersections from 
two or more transits on shore. Plotting these locations gives the 
current directions. When floats do not touch the bottom the time 
elapsing between locations gives a measure of the velocity. When 
floats do drag on the bottom the observer estimates the angle of 
inclination, and from that the depth of water can be computed. 

During the month of October, 1917, a number of experimental 
floats were built and tried. The first were broken in pieces on passing 
over the cascade, but a satisfactory design was soon worked out. For 
each float two short pieces of cedar fence post were fastened near the 
top of a 16-foot spruce 2 by 4. Above these a light frame of 1 by 2 
inch pieces carried a flag and target of red and black cloth. At the 
lower end of the 2 by 4, sufficient ballast, in the form of cast-iron 
sash weights, was attached so that the whole floated in a vertical 
position with the bottom just 14 feet below the water surface, and the 
cedar blocks protruding just 1 inch out of water. This was called a 
" 14-foot float." Floats were built on this principle in submerged 
lengths of 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 feet, except that in the smaller 
sizes 2 by 2 sticks were used instead of 2 by 4s. The 1 foot and 2 foot 
float did not give very satisfactory service. Floats of the 4, 6, 10, 
12, and 14 foot lengths are illustrated in photograph No. 62. 

The work of running and locating these floats was done in the 
month of November, 1917. The entire field force was used, being 
divided into six parties of two or three men each. Four of these were 
transit parties, consisting of an instrument man, a recorder, and, in one 
party, a signal man. The stations occupied by the transit parties are 
shown on plate No. 19, marked J, W, D, and H. Four transit parties 
were used to increase the number of successful locations and check 
their accuracy and also to obtain more estimates of angles of float 
inclination. Often a float would be invisible from one or more sta- 
tions. When a float was passing through the rapids the signalman 
dropped a large flag at regular intervals, which fact was immediately 
called out by the four recorders to their respective transit men as the 
signal for simultaneous pointings upon the float. The transitmen 
thereupon read intersection angles, and, if the float was dragging on 
the bottom, estimated the angle the float made with the vertical. 
These observations were made at intervals of from 8 to 25 seconds, 
which required very quick work by both observer and recorder. Some 
intermediate observations of float striking or dragging were made 
and recorded. This frequency of reading was necessary because some 
floats made the whole trip from below the cascade to the crest of the 
falls in about 60 seconds. 

The fifth party launched the floats from a small motor boat at 
points below Navy Island. The last party, which was furnished with 
an automobile, inspected and supervised the work, transported men, 
instruments, and materials to the various stations, and carried 
messages from one party to another. 



236 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

This work was considerably delayed by rain, snow, and fog, but 
was completed during the month of November. The following figures 
give some idea of the magnitude of the work : Altogether 217 floats 
were used. These contained nearly 2,000 board feet of lumber and 
nearly 1-| tons of sash weights. The launch ran more than 200 miles 
and the automobile about 300 miles. 

Photographs Nos. 63 and 64 each show the automobile party and 
one transit party. 

In the office reduction of this work the float locations were carefully 
plotted on a map of the rapids on a scale of 1=5,000. Lines connect- 
ing the successive locations of the same float gave the direction of the 
current at various points. These directions are shown on plate No. 
19. The recorders' notes showed whether or not the floats were drag- 
ging on the bottom. In the case of those which were not dragging 
the distance between successive positions of a float were divided by 
the elapsed time, giving the current velocity in feet per second. 
These are plotted on plate No. 20. From floats that dragged on the 
bottom the depth of water at each location and intermediate point, 
was computed from the known submerged length of the float and the 
angle of inclination estimated by the transitman. The depths are 
shown on plate No. 21. 

At times when floats were not being run, the transitmen read inter- 
sections and vertical angles to projecting rocks and other points 
on the water surface of the rapids which could be identified by two 
or more parties. From these the elevation of the water surface at 
these points was computed and plotted, and a rather rough contour 
map of the water surface was constructed on tracing paper. Super- 
imposing this upon the sheet of depths the elevation of the river 
bottom was computed from each depth, and plotted on another sheet. 
A contour map of the river bottom was thus constructed, showing 
5-foot contours. This is shown on plate No. 22. 

This survey of the rapids, and the results obtained constitute a 
very satisfactory solution of the difficult problem of determining 
the hydrographic and hydraulic conditions above the falls. It is 
unfortunate that there were certain areas through which no floats 
could be made to pass. Nevertheless, the survey resulted in a very 
great increase in the knowledge of Niagara conditions. 

Survey of crest line of Horseshoe Falls. — The survey of the crest 
line of the Horseshoe Falls was prosecuted at odd moments during 
December, 1917, and January, 1918, whenever an instrument and 
observer were available. The work consisted simply of intersecting 
various points on the crest from stations on shore. An effort was 
made to have the resulting line represent the edge of the rock cliff 
and not the curving surface of the falling water. This survey is 
well tied into the geodetic surveys of the International Waterway 
Commission and the United States Lake Survey, and through these 
to the previous crest line surveys of the lake survey and others. It 
is plotted on a scale of 1 : 2000 together with the results of earlier sur- 
veys on plate No. 18. The results of this work are discussed in Ap- 
pendix C of this report. Table No. 21 contains descriptions of the 
various goedetic points in the vicinity of the Falls with their geodetic 
coordinates reduced to a common datum. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 237 

Table No. 21. — Triangulation stations used in survey of crest line and rapids. 
[Positions are referred to U. S. Standard datum.] 

A M. — This station, established by the New York State survey in 1890, is 
at the head of the stairs and path down to Terrapin Rock at the west end of 
Goat Island, being the center of a cross on the top of an 8-inch stone post 
buried 10 inches below the surface and surrounded by a piece of tiling which 
reaches above the surface of the ground. 

Latitude 43° 04' 50.03" ; longitude 79° 04' 24.57". 

A Terrapin. — This station was established in 1886 by R. S. Woodward for 
the United States Geological Survey and is probably very close to the point of 
the same name used by the United States Lake Survey in 1875. It is a cross 
on a brass bolt expanded into a drill hole in the top of Terrapin Rock on the 
Goat Island end of the Horseshoe Falls. The name " Terrapin " is cut in rude 
letters on the rock around the bolt. 

Latitude 43° 04' 48.90" ; longitude 79° 04' 28.06". 

A Nail. — This station was established in 1917 on the west side of Goat 
Island near the top of the bank and about halfway between A M and A T. P. 
No. 6. It is marked by ho permanent monument. 

Latitude 43° 04' 47.66" ; longitude 79° 04' 23.59". 

Boundary monument No. 21. — This station was established by the Interna- 
tional Waterways Commission about 1912. It is one of the commission's 
standard monuments and is on the top of the bank on the southwest side of 
Goat Island about 560 feet southeast of the top of the path leading to Terrapin 
Rock. 

Latitude 43° 04' 45.40"; longitude 79° 04' 20.39". 

Note. — The International W T aterways Commission's triangulation gives the 
location of boundary monument No. 21 as — 

Latitude 43° 04' 45.36" ; longitude 79° 04' 20.38". 

A T. P. No. 6.— This station was established in 1842 by James Hall, State 
geologist of New York. It is on the southwest side of Goat Island, about 470 
feet southeast of the top of the path leading to Terrapin Rock, being a cross 
cut in the top of a stone post, 8 inches square, standing in the path and pro- 
jecting 9 inches above the surface. The top of the stone is badly battered, but 
shows a rude " 6 " cut on one side. 

Latitude 43° 04' 45.68" ; longitude 79° 04' 21.65". 

E D. — This station was established in 1917. It is at the top of the bank on 
the southwest side of Goat Island, about 30 feet west of A T. P. No. 6. It is 
marked by no permanent monument. 

Latitude 43° 04' 45.68" ; longitude 79° 04' 22.03". 

H H. — This station was established in 1917. It is at the foot of the bank, 
near a timber sea w T all on the south side of Goat Island, about 650 feet east of 
A T. P. No. 6. It is marked by no permanent monument. 

Latitude 43° 04' 43.72"; longitude 79° 04' 13.31". 

E Walk. — This station was established in 1917. It is on the Canadian side 
at the top of the cliff above the outfall of the Canadian Niagara Power Co.'s 
tunnel. It is marked by no permanent monument. 

Latitude 43° 04' 48.97" ; longitude 79° 04' 42.66". 

Boundary monument No. 20. — This station was established by the Interna- 
tional Waterways Commission about 1912. It is one of the commission's stand- 
ard monuments and is on the Canadian side, about 130 feet southwest of the 
Canadian end of the Horseshoe Falls. 

Latitude 43° 04' 44.19" ; longitude 79° 04' 42.83". ' 

Note. — The International Waterways Commission's triangulation gives the 
position of boundary monument No. 20 as — 

Latitude 43° 04' 44.15" ; longitude 79° 04' 42.80". 

El 1. — This station was established in 1917. It is near the top of the bank 
on the Canadian side, about 100 feet southwest of boundary monument No. 20. 
It is marked by no permanent monument. 

Latitude 43° 04' 43.36" ; longitude 79° 04' 43.57". 

□ 2. — This station was established in 1917. It is near the top of the bank 
on the Canadian side, about 200 feet southwest of boundary monument No. 20. 
It is marked by no permanent monument. 

Latitude 43° 04' 42.54"; longitude 79° 04' 44.32" 



238 DIVEKSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

EI 3. — This station was established in 1917. It is near the top of the bank 
on the Canadian side about 300 feet southwest of boundary monument No. 20. 
It is marked by no permanent monument. 

Latitude 43° 04' 41.72" ; longitude 79° 04' 45.08". 

A Canal. — This station was established in 1906. It is on the Canadian side 
just above the intake canal of the International Railway Co.'s power house, be- 
ing a cross cut on a quarter-inch bolt in the top of a rough stone 12 by 18 by 18 
inches, 3 inches below the surface of the ground. Stone is marked " U. S. A L. S." 
It is 22.8 feet west of the southeast corner of concrete wall which runs south 
along the shore from the canal, 33.8 feet southwest from the northwest corner 
of same wall and 156 feet southeast from the south abutment of the railway 
bridge. 

Latitude 43° 04' 38.89" ; longitude 79° 04' 45.26". 

EJ W. — This station was established in 1917. It is on top of the bank on the 
Canadian side, near its edge, about 325 feet south of the intake canal of the 
International Railway Co.'s power house. It is marked by no permanent monu- 
ment. 

Latitude 43° 04' 36.26" ; longitude 79° 04' 44.48". 

El »/. — This station was established in 1917. It is on top of the bank on the 
Canadian side, near its edge, about 130 feet northwest of the Toronto Power 
Co.'s power house. It is marked by no permanent monument. 

Latitude 43° 04' 21.82" ; longitude 79° 04' 29.94". 

A Lorretto. — This station is the center of the cross on the Lorretto Convent 
on the high bank west of the Michigan Central Railroad Co.'s tracks, south of the 
Falls View Station. This point was located by R. S. Woodward in 1886. In 
1890 the New York State survey placed a brass screw in the tin deck of the 
cupola directly under the center of the cross and occupied that station. 

Latitude 43° 04' 32.85" ; longitude 79° 04' 57.11". 

Float measurements m the Gorge. — For the study of the effect 
of building a dam at the foot of Fosters Flats further knowledge of 
hydraulic conditions in the rapids below and above the Whirlpool 
was necessary. There are published records of soundings taken at 
most of the points where sounding operations are possible without 
great expenditure of time and money. It was not thought that the 
expense of further soundings would be justified by the value of the 
results. Instead it was decided to obtain a few velocity measure- 
ments. As the total flow through the rapids at any time is known, 
and also the width at any point, the cross sectional area and mean 
depth could be determined roughly from the velocities shown by a 
few floats. 

Six bases, of various lengths ranging from 100 to 300 feet, were 
laid out in the rapids. They were located as follows : No. 1 was just 
upstream from the Whirlpool; No. 2 was just upstream from the 
Eddy Basin, No. 3 was 2,000 feet downstream from the Michigan 
Central Railroad bridge, No. 4 was 600 feet downstream from the 
same bridge, No. 5 was abreast of Thompsons Point, and No. 6 was at 
the head of Fosters Flats. 

The floats used were rod floats that had been prepared for use in 
the survey of the Horseshoe Rapids but had not been needed there. 
Most of them were 14 feet in length, although lengths of 4, 6, 7,8, and 
and 10 feet were also used. The floats were lowered into the river 
from the Grand Trunk Railway bridge or thrown from the American 
shore at the exit of the Whirlpool. The time of passing the bases 
as observed on stop watches and the distance of the floats from the 
American shore was estimated. In all 48 floats were run. The 
velocities observed varied from 5.5 to 38 feet per second. 

Plats were made of the velocities observed at each section, rough 
transverse velocity curves drawn, and an estimate of the mean 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 239 

velocity of the whole stream made. Dividing the discharge of the 
river by this velocity gave the cross sectional area, and this divided 
by the width gave the mean depth. In addition four sounded profiles 
of the Gorge made by Canadian surveys were available and two 
profiles from the work of the Lake Survey. 

The Gorge from the American Falls to the foot of Fosters Flats 
was then divided into five sections, and, from a study of all the avail- 
able data, mean values for the width and hydraulic mean depth were 
adopted. Values of "n," the coefficient of roughness, were then 
adopted for each section such that by using Manning's formula, 

V = — - — R^-^RS, the computed slope for each section was the same 

as the slope shown on the Lake Survey mean profile of the Lower 
Niagara River. The values of " n " used varied from 0.050 in the 
smoothest section to 0.057 and 0.059 in the swiftest rapids. 

Backwater computations were then made by successive approxima- 
tions in the usual manner to show how much the water in different 
parts of the Gorge would be raised by a dam at the foot of Fosters 
Flats. 

Table No. 22 shows the amount of rise at three different points 
that would be caused by dams of various heights at the foot of 
Fosters Flats. 

Table No. 22. — Amount of backwater rise at various points in the Gorge by dam 
at foot of Fosters Flats, where present mean stage elevation is 272. 





Backwater rise at — 


Elevation of water at crest of dam. 


Foot of 
Foster 
Flats. 


Whirl- 
pool 
gauge. 


Sus- 
pension 
Bridge 
gauge. 


Maid of 
the Mist 
landing. 


325 


53 
63 
68 
72 


34.71 
44.15 
48.91 
52.80 


1.59 

5.47 

8.17 

10.78 


1.59 


335 


5.44 


340 


8.10 


344 


10. 09 







Photographs. — An important part of the field work was the taking 
of a series of photographs showing the appearance of various parts 
of the river at different stages. On October 30, 1917, a full set of 
photographs was obtained at an extremely high stage of the river. 
On November 7 and 8 a set was obtained at a little above mean stage. 
Attempts to get pictures at an extreme low stage failed, as such stages 
only occurred during heavy northeast gales accompanied by rain or 
snow, during which time it was quite impossible to get satisfactory 
photographs. A third set was obtained on December 3, 7, and 18, 
when the stage was a little below the average. In all 54 photographs 
were taken. These pictures are presented and discussed in Appendix 
C of the report. 

Other photographs were taken showing the methods and equipment 
used in the field work. 

Gauges. — The first field work accomplished was the installation of 
automatic water gauges. Reconnaissance for this work was begun 
on September 20, 1917, and the last gauge was installed on October 



240 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

27, 1917. Much other work was done during this period. The prin- 
cipal use of these gauges was to determine the discharge of the river 
at the times of taking photographs or running floats. It was also 
desired to obtain more accurate data on the slope of the lower river 
between the Maid of the Mist Pool and Lewiston to disclose any 
possible changes of importance in regimen of the river due to in- 
creased diversions of water for power development, or erosion of the 
Horseshoe Falls, and to strengthen and expand the data on which 
predictions of future effects of erosion and diversions had very largely 
to be based. 

Eight automatic gauges were installed. They were Lake Survey 
gauges of the " Wilson type." The main vertical scale on each was 
3 inches to the 1 foot, and the time scale was 2 inches to 1 hour. 
The supplementary vertical scale was one-half inch to the foot on 
the Chippawa, Terrapin Point, Prospect Point, and Lewiston gauges 
and one-fourth inch to the foot on the others. Each instrument 
provided a continuous graphic record of the water surface elevation 
at the gauge site. 

The Chippawa gauge was located on the face of a dock on the 
north side of the Welland River (Chippawa Creek), about 200 feet 
east of the highway bridge and about 400 feet west of the position 
occupied by the United States Lake Survey's Chippawa gauge of 
former years. The gauge was installed October 11, 1917. 

Photograph No. 65 shows this gauge in position. 

The International Railway intake gauge was located on the face 
of the park wall on the Canadian side of the Niagara River just 
downstream from the intake of the International Railway Co.'s 
power house. This is the position formerly occupied by the United 
States Lake Survey's gauge of the same name. The gauge was in- 
stalled October 9, 1917. It is shown in photograph No. 66. 

The Terrapin Point gauge was located at Terrapin Point, near the 
eastern end of the Horseshoe Falls, in the identical position used for 
the United States Lake Survey's Terrapin Point gauge. It was in- 
stalled October 3, 1917, and maintained till December 6. 

The Prospect Point gauge was at Prospect Point, at the American 
end of the American Falls, a few feet from the brink of the Falls. 
It was placed as closely as possible in the position of the gauge for- 
merly maintained at this point by the United States Lake Survey. 
The gauge was installed October 27, 1917, and maintained until 
December 10. A picture of this gauge is given in photograph 
No. 68. 

The Suspension Bridge gauge was in the Gorge on the American 
shore about 160 feet upstream from the Michigan Central bridge in 
the location occupied by the United States Lake Survey gauge of 
the same name in former years. This gauge was installed Septem- 
ber 26, 1917. It is illustrated in photograph No. 67. # 

The Whirlpool gauge was located on the Canadian side of the 
Whirlpool about 300 feet southeast of the mouth of a small creek 
entering the south side of the pool. This is the position occupied 
bv the Lake Survey's Whirlpool gauge. The gauge was installed 
October 15, 1917. 

The Lower Gorge gauge was located in the Gorge on the American 
side above Lewiston, opposite and ju'st upstream from Smeatons 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 241 

Eavine. This gauge was installed September 29, 1917, in the vicinity 
of various proposed power-house sites to obtain new data on water 
elevations and fluctuations at this point, including backwater effects 
of Lake Ontario. It is a notable fact that this gauge was at the foot 
of an eddy along the American shore and showed higher elevations 
of the water surface than existed several hundred feet farther 
upstream. 

A picture of this gauge is shown in photograph No. 129. 

The Lewiston gauge was on the downstream end of Pitz Dock at 
Lewiston, N. Y., about 4 feet east of the northwest corner of the 
dock. The Lake Survey's Lewiston gauge was formerly located at 
the other end of the dock, about 200 feet upstream. This gauge was 
installed October 1, 1917. 

The location of all of these gauges is indicated on the general 
topographic map constituting plates Nos. 13 and 14 of this report. 

The very unusual high stage of December 9, 1917, the highest in 40 
years, put several of the gauges temporarily out of commission. In 
order to gain as much data as possible regarding this maximum stage, 
a level party was employed to determine the elevations of the high- 
water marks which were left at some of the gauge sites. These values 
are given at the foot of Table No. 23. The maximum registered by 
the " engineer's gauge " at Buffalo on this date was 579. By the ac- 
cepted discharge formula a continuing elevation of 579 at Buffalo 
would correspond to a flow of 366,000 cubic feet per second through 
the Niagara River. 

It may be of interest to note the weather conditions which pro- 
duced this unusual rise. The United States Weather Bureau reports 
that a heavy gale from the northeast with heavy snow prevailed on 
the 8th of December. The barometer went down to the very low value 
of 29.05. During the night the wind shifted to the west and increased 
in violence, attaining a maximum velocity of 78 miles per hour. The 
gale continued strong until nearly midnight. The fall of snow 
during these two days amounted to nearly 2 feet. The minimum 
temperature was 6° above zero at 9 a. m. on the 9th. The gauges 
showed an unusually low stage on the 8th and extremely high on the 
9th. Under the existing weather conditions it was quite impossible 
to obtain photographs of the high-water conditions or take any other 
advantage of the unusual state of affairs. 

The record obtained from these gauges is fragmentary and in- 
complete because of the unsatisfactory condition of the gauge instru- 
ments and because of various vicissitudes which the gauges experi- 
enced, partly due to neglect necessitated by the pressure of other 
work. It was ample, however, for the purpose of the investigation. 

The gauge records were worked up in the usual manner and eleva- 
tions scaled from them to the nearest hundredth of a foot for every 
hour. The dairy means are tabulated in table No. 23. Values marked 
with an asterisk (*) are the means of days where four or more hourly 
scalings are missing. The elevations given are above mean sea level 
according to the level adjustment of 1903. For^ purposes of com- 
parison the scalings of the United States Lake Survey's Buffalo 
gauge have been included in the table. 

27880—21 16 



242 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Table No. 23. — Daily mean water surface elevations of Niagara River. 
[In feet above mean sea level according to the level adjustment of 1903.] 



Date. 



1917. 

Sept. 26 

Sept. 27 

Sept. 28 

Sept. 29 

Sept. 30 

Oct. 1 

Oct.2 

Oct.3 

Oct. 4 

Oct.5 

Oct. 6 

Oct. 7 

Oct. 8 

Oct. 9 

Oct. 10 

Oct. 11 

Oct. 12 

Oct. 13 

Oct. 14 

Oct. 15 

Oct. 16 

Oct. 17 

Oct. 18 

Oct. 19 

Oct. 20 

Oct. 21 

Oct. 22 

Oct. 23 

Oct. 24 

Oct. 25 

Oct. 26 

Oct.27 

Oct. 28 

Oct. 29 

Oct. 30 

Oct. 31 

Nov. 1 

Nov. 2 

Nov. 3 ..". 

Nov. 4 

Nov. 5 

Nov. 6 

Nov. 7 ..".'.'. 

Nov. 8 

Nov. 9 

Nov. 10 

Nov. 11 

Nov. 12 

Nov. 13 

Nov. 14 

Nov. 15 

Nov. 16 

Nov. 17 

Nov. 18 

Nov. 19 

Nov. 20 

Nov. 21 

Nov. 22 

Nov. 23 

Nov. 24 

Nov. 25 

Nov. 26 

Nov. 27 

Nov. 28 

Nov. 29 

Nov. 30 

Dec. 1 

Dec. 2 

Dec. 3 

Dec. 4 

Dec.5 

Dec. 6 

Dec. 7 

Dec. 8 

Dec. 9 

Dec. 10 

High-water mark Dec - 9 > 1917 ' 



Buffalo 

gauge 



572. 89 

573. 07 

573. 19 

573. 50 
573. 58 
573.07 
572. 94 
573. 17 
572. 99 
573. 25 
572. 99 
573. 24 
572. 88 
572. 58 
572. 34 
572. 58 
574. 49 

573. 82 
572. 94 

573. 08 
572. 73 
572. 11 
572. 70 
573. 36 
572. 82 
572. 81 
572. 73 
572. 29 

572. 02 
573. 05 

572. 84 
573.16 

573. 20 

572. 73 
574.93 
573. 38 
573. 23 
573.45 
573. 38 
572. 61 

572. 90 
572. 96 
572. 80 
572. 98 

573. 09 

573. 00 
572. 88 
572. 66 
572.59 
572.85 
573. 16 

572. 85 

573. 03 
573. 11 
572. 94 
573. 15 
572. 72 
572. 66 
572. 66 

573. 01 
572. 79 

572. 74 
572. 63 
572.98 
572. 57 
572.86 
573.25 
572.56 
572.52 

572. 83 
572. 98 
572. 43 
572.27 

572. 51 
576. 08 

574. 91 
579. 00 



*562. 53 

563. 07 

564. 01 

*563. 04 

*562. 87 



Chip- 

pawa 
gauge. 



*562. 78 
562. 71 
562. 70 
562.44 
562. 23 
563. 01 
562. 77 
563. 13 
563. 19 
562. 76 
564.06 
563.46 

*563. 11 



*508. 56 
508. 34 
507.93 
508.28 

*508. 29 



*562. 89 
562. 66 
562. 71 
562. 77 
562. 63 
562. 71 
562. 81 
562. 79 



*562. 56 
562.48 
562.65 
562. 83 
562. 67 
562. 75 
562. 81 
562. 68 
562. 86 
562. 62 
562. 65 
562. 46 

*562. 70 



*562. 75 

562.52 

*562. 61 



*562.50 



565. 40 



Inter- 
national 
Rail- 
way 
intake 
gauge. 



*506. 67 
506. 92 
506. 94 

506. 75 

506. 76 
506. 72 
506. 61 
506. 67 
506. 77 
506. 76 
506.72 

*506. 73 



*508. 64 
509.25 
508. 59 
510. 67 
509. 40 
508. 96 
508. 90 
509. 06 
508.64 
508.51 
508. 53 

*508.30 

*508. 46 
508.64 
508. 53 
508. 70 
508.31 
508. 12 
508. 37 
508. 62 
508.37 
508.52 
508.85 
508.44 
508. 66 

*508. 41 



513.50 



Ter- 
rapin 
Point 
gauge. 



*506. 76 

506. 73 

*506.73 



*506. 78 
506. 73 
506. 83 
506. 82 
506. 73 
507. 12 
506. 89 

*506. 81 



Pros- 
pect 
Point 
gauge. 



341.78 
342.32 
341.80 
342.39 
341.92 
342. 39 

341. 78 
341.02 
340. 30 

340. 79 
*341.76 



*506. 75 
506.73 
506. 74 
506.75 

506. 72 
506.75 
506.77 

506. 77 

506. 76 

506. 73 
506. 69 
506. 73 

506. 78 
506. 73 
506.75 

506. 77 
*506.72 
*506. 76 

506. 72 

506. 72 

*506.72 



*512. 82 
512. 93 
512. 80 
513. 09 

1*512. 93 
512. 84 
512. 83 
512. 86 
512. 72 

*512. 73 
512.76 

512. 71 
512. 74 
512. 77 
512.76 

512. 74 
512. 70 
512. 67 

512. 72 
512. 77 
512.72 

512. 75 
512. 77 

512. 73 
512. 80 
512.73 

512. 74 
*512. 66 



*506. 76 

506.70 

506. 74 

506. 80 

*506. 73 

*506.70 



506.65 



*512.72 
512. 69 
512. 73 
512. 78 
512. 69 
512. 66 
512.64 
513. 30 

*513. 21 



Suspen- 
sion 
bridge 
gauge. 



*341.61 
341. 75 
342.44 
342.64 

*342. 70 



*342. 13 

*341.35 

340. 33 

341. 02 

*342. 25 

342. 01 

341.49 

341.49 

*340. 51 

*339. 63 

*342. 44 

341.57 

*341.51 

*342. 48 

341.75 

*342. 33 



*293. 91 

*293. 62 

*291.12 

*292. 63 

*294.27 

*293. 59 

293. 22 

293. 24 

292. 12 

291.03 

*294. 36 



*294. 55 



*343. 20 
343.36 
341. 28 
341. 65 
341.93 
341.35 
341. 73 
342.15 
342.00 
341. 73 
341. 23 
340.80 
341.57 
342. 31 
341. 61 

*342. 06 



*342. 10 
341. 43 
341.58 

*339. 96 



Whirl- 
pool 
gauge. 



♦251.06 
251. 51 
251.04 
250. 76 
250. 86 
250. 79 
251. 13 
250. 98 
250. 95 
250. 74 
250. 55 
250.31 
250. 46 

*250. 64 



*293. 02 

293.27 

*291. 86 



*292. 84 
293.76 
292.68 
293. 21 

*294. 56 
292. 94 

*292. 53 
293. 06 

*294. 20 

*292. 14 
291. 80 
291.41 

*296.55 



353.20 305.70 



Lower 
gorge 
gauge. 



*250. 71 
*250. 74 
250. 57 
250.16 
250. 37 
250. 93 
250. 74 
250. 67 
250. 63 
*250. 39 
250. 34 
251.05 
250. 74 
251. 28 
251.24 
250. 86 
252.63 
251.77 
251.34 



*251. 06 
250.74 

*250. 92 
250.97 
250.79 
250.80 
250.91 
250.90 
250.85 
250. 74 
250.53 
250.72 
250.96 
250.81 
250.77 
250. 95 
250.72 
250.93 
250.68 
250.88 
250.59 
251.01 
250.82 
250.73 
250.60 
250.77 
250.52 
250.70 
251.07 
250.71 
250.48 
250.58 
250.79 
250.44 
250.28 
250.25 
253.51 

*253.50 
256.20 



Lewis- 
ton 

gauge. 



*247. 18 



*247. 30 
247. 23 
247.20 

*247. 24 



*247. 08 
247.06 
247. 08 
247. 07 
247. 13 
247. 16 

247. 18 
247. 13 

247. 19 
247. 30 
247.22 
247.28 
247.29 
247.27 
247. 33 
247.41 
247.41 
247.40 
247.34 
247.39 
247.36 
247.37 
247.35 
247. 33 
247. 28 
247. 26 
247.27 
247.33 



*247. 26 
247.24 
247.19 
247.23 
247.20 
247. 22 
247.26 
247. 39 
247.27 
247.28 
247.23 
247.23 
247.22 

247. 17 
247. 19 

247. 18 
247. 17 
247.19 
247.17 
247.12 
247. 11 
247. 14 
247.06 
247.24 

*247. 28 



Values marked * are means from which four or more hourly scalings are missing. 






DIVERSION OF WATEK FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 243 

The various gauges on the Niagara River serve as measuring de- 
vices for measuring the flow of the river or of one channel of the 
river at any particular point. If artificial or natural changes in the 
regimen of the river did not occur, the relation between different 
gauges would be constant. Any change in these relations indicates a 
change in regimen, the most important being due to increased diver- 
sion by the power companies or to recession of the Falls. An unpub- 
lished report of the United States Lake Survey, dated 1912, gives an 
analysis of the effect of diversions upon the various gauges above 
the Falls as shown by the changes in their relations to the Suspension 
Bridge gauge. The observations of 1917 were used in combination 
with earlier Lake Survey records in computations and studies the 
results of which are as follows : 

Buffalo gauge. — The computed lowering due to increased diversion 
since 1912 was 0.03 foot. The observed lowering was 0.02, an excel- 
lent check. 

Chip paw a gauge. — Computed lowering since 1912, 0.15 foot, ob- 
served lowering 0.18, an excellent check. 

International Railway intake gauge. — Computed lowering since 
1912, 0.64, observed lowering 1.03. This leaves an unexplained 
lowering of 0.39. Similar excess of lowering has been observed in 
the past, and very reasonably has been referred to as the effect of the 
recession of the Horseshoe Falls. 

Prospect Point gauge. — If it be assumed that the division of water 
between the two sides of Goat Island has remained constant the com- 
puted lowering due to increased diversion since 1906 is 0.07 foot. It 
is probable that the increased diversions of the American companies 
have decreased the percentage of flow through the American channel. 
In this case the lowering would be greater than 0.07 foot. The ob- 
served lowering was 0.12 foot. 

Terrapin Point gauge. — The gauge relations of this gauge have 
never been satisfactory. Observations in 1906 and 1912 gave widely 
different relations. By the 1906 relation the computed lowering is 
0.29, while only 0.22 was observed. If the 1912 equations are used 
the computed lowering is 0.05, and the 1917 observations indicate a 
rise of 0.02. In either case there is a discrepancy of 0.07 foot. This 
gauge is located in a shallow stream of water at the Goat Island end 
of the Horseshoe Falls, and does not appear to reflect accurately the 
conditions of the river as a whole. The use of the gauge in studies 
of the regimen of the Niagara River is to be avoided when possible. 
The Suspension Bridge and Whirlpool gauges each record the 
flow of the whole river through channels in which no artificial 
changes have been made for many years. They were maintained in 
1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910, and i9i7. The five later years agree in 
showing a relation by which a change of 1 foot in the Suspension 
Bridge gauge is accompanied by a similar change of 1.17 feet at the 
Whirlpool. The absolute elevations at the Whirlpool corresponding 
to given stages at Suspension Bridge vary by small amounts, always 
less than 0.20 foot, from year to year. These variations follow no 
systematic course, and probably represent small local changes at the 
gauge sites. The records for i906 were few, covering only a small 
range, and they appear to be somewhat discordant. The relation for 
1917 coincides almost exactly with that for 1907, and very closely 



244 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

with that for 1908. The 1909 and 1910 relations show elevations at 
the Whirlpool lower by more than one-tenth of a foot. 

The Lower Gorge gauge. — Occupied an entirely new site. In re- 
lating it to the other gauges it was necessary to take into account the 
fact that water surface elevations at the site are dependent on the 
elevation of Lake Ontario to some extent, as well as upon the eleva- 
tion of Lake Erie. For this reason it was necessary to derive an 
equation with three variables. The gauges used were Whirlpool, 
Lower Gorge, and Lewiston. There were 17 days on which each 
of these three gauges simultaneously gave a good, reliable record, 
with no missing hourly scalings. The derivation of the relation 
from these values involved considerable analytical difficulties, due 
to the small number, of observations and the small range of stage 
that occurred at the Lewiston gauge. The relation finally adopted 
was — 

Lower Gorge =247 +0.000043 (Whirlpool— 249.56) 3 +0.77 

(Lewiston— 247). 

At mean stage Whirlpool is at elevation 292.51 and Lewiston is 
246.73. By the relation given above Lower Gorge is 250.20. At 
standard low water Whirlpool is 286.24 and Lewiston is 243.38. 
This gives 246.34 for the standard low-water value at Lower Gorge. 

This relation is believed to be the best obtainable from the data 
available. It could doubtless be improved by maintaining these 
three gauges carefully for a full season or longer. 

Pro-file of lower river. — In 1912 the United States Lake Survey 
compiled standard profiles of the St. Marys, St. Clair, Detroit, 
Niagara, and St. Lawrence Rivers. The upper part of the Niagara 
profile was well determined by numerous gauges, but in the lower 
river, and especially in the rapids of the lower river, the data used 
was scanty and rather poor. In the studies of power-house loca- 
tions along the rapids below Devils Hole it was very desirable to 
have more accurate data on water-surface elevations of this part of 
the river. It was intended to make observations at high, low, and 
medium stages, but very low water occurred at times when no men 
were available for this work, and the low-water profile observed 
differs but slightly from the one made at mean stage. 

(For the purpose of obtaining these profiles a large number of 
gauge points were established along the river from the Suspension 
Bridge gauge to Lewiston, and the elevation of these points were 
carefully determined. 

On December 6 and 7, 1917, the vertical distance from the gauge 
point to the water surface was read at 40 of these points. During 
the reading the mean water-surface elevation was 292.07 at the 
Whirlpool gauge, 250.38 at the Lower Gorge gauge, and 247.10 at 
the Lewiston gauge. The fluctuations that occurred during the 
readings were, respectively, 1.14, 0.56, and 0.15 feet. These readings 
and the automatic gauge records gave the data for the mean stage 
profile. 

On December 8 another set was read, but owing to bad weather 
and limited time, and the fact that the water was too low for meas- 
urement at some points, only 14 readings were made. The mean 
gauge readings at the Whirlpool, Lower Gorge, and Lewiston gauges 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 245 

were 291.11, 250.33, and 247.26, respectively, while the fluctuations 
were 0.47, 0.31, and 0.22. These readings and records furnished the 
data for the low-water profile. As noted above, much lower values 
would have been desirable. 

On December 9 the highest stage of the season occurred, but 
weather conditions were such that gauge readings could not be ob- 
tained. On the following day the stage was still high, and, despite 
the difficult conditions, readings on five of the most important 
points were obtained. Many of the gauge points were found to be 
submerged and no readings could be made on them. The elevations 
of the three automatic gauges were, respectively, 298.23, 254.48, and 
247.75, while the fluctuations of these gauges during the period of 
the readings were 0.90, 1.17, and 0.24. Both the Whirlpool and 
Lewiston gauges had been stopped by the high stage of the preced- 
ing day, and elevations at these two points were supplied by gauge 
relations from the record of the Hydraulic Power Co.'s gauges at 
station 2 and Lewiston, respectively. 

It was next necessary to reduce all observations on each profile to 
values corresponding to the mean stage prevailing during the 
measurement of the profile. In doing this all available evidence was 
taken into account. The observed ratios of fluctuations were given 
the most weight, but the general laws of hydraulics and the nature 
of the river channel were also considered. The three profiles were 
then carefully plotted, as shown on plate No. 15. 

The values were then reduced to the official mean stage and 
standard low water of the Whirlpool and Lewiston gauges, as shown 
on the Lake Survey profile of 1912. The Lake Survey profile was 
then replotted on a different scale, the new profile between the 
Suspension Bridge gauge and Lewiston being incorporated. This 
profile is shown on plate No. 11. It was used as the basis of all com- 
putations of slopes, fall, etc., in the present investigation. The 
official mean stage profile differs but very little from the observed 
mean stage profile of plate No. 15, and may be considered well de- 
termined. In places along the American shore there are eddies and 
current retardations producing what appears on the profile as nega- 
tive slopes. The standard low water profile is not well determined, 
but is of value in indicating about what slopes may be expected at 
extreme low stage. 

Levels. — A considerable amount of leveling was accomplished dur- 
ing the investigation. A good wye level was used, and careful, ac- 
curate work was performed. All lines were run in duplicate, and 
good closures were obtained on all accepted lines. The most im- 
portant new line was that through the gorge on the American side. 
This line ran from the precise level bench mark on the old academy 
at Lewiston to the Pitz Dock, and then up the electric railway tracks 
in the gorge to the Lake Survey bench mark near the Suspension 
Bridge gauge. This line connected with the old Lake Survey bench 
marks at the Whirlpool and on the abutment of the Grand Trunk 
bridge. A number of new bench marks were established along this 
line. Another line was run from B. M. Toll at the Canadian end 
of the upper steel bridge to Boundary Monument No. 20, near the 
International Kailway intake gauge. In addition levels were run 
to each automatic gauge at least twice during the season, and several 
minor lines were run. 



246 DIVEESION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The descriptions and elevations of the new bench marks are given 
in Table No. 24. Table No. 25 gives descriptions and elevations of 
older bench marks in this vicinity. 

Table No. 24- — Neto bench marks established in 1911 in vicinity of 

Niagara Falls. 

[NOTB.^Elevations are given in feet above mean tide at Sandv Hook and according to 

the precise level adjustment of 1903.] 

B. M. Boundary Monument 19 is the top of the brass plug in the International 
Boundary Monument No. 19 near Prospect Point. Elevation, 521.753. 

B. M. Boundary Monument 20 is the top of the brass plug in the International 
Boundary Monument No. 20 on the Canadian shore between the river and the 
highway about 100 feet south of the end of the Horseshoe Falls. Elevation, 
518.352. 

B. M. Rail is in the Gorge on the American side. It is a square cut in the 
west edge of the top of a flat rock, 2 feet north and 10 feet east of north 
switch point of Gorge Railway tracks, 105 paces south of southeast abutment 
of the Michigan Central Railroad bridge. Elevation, 379.784. 

B. M. Stonewall is in the Gorge on the American side. It is a square cut 
in coping stone of dry masonry retaining wall about 182 paces north of Grand 
Trunk Railway bridge. Bench mark is 9 paces south of north end of wall. 
Elevation, 348.416. 

B. M. Rapids is in the Gorge on the American side. It is a square cut in 
the southwest corner of the concrete walk at the Rapids station of the Gorge 
Railway. Elevation, 334.609. 

B. M. Door is in the Gorge on the American side above the Whirlpool on the 
east side of the Gorge Railway tracks directly in front of north side of the iron 
door of an old powder house. The bench mark is the top of a round knob 
chiseled on shelf of rock 2 feet above ground and 2.6 feet from the door jamb. 
Elevation, 320.450. 

B. M. Spring is in the Gorge on the American side just below the Whirlpool 
between the track and the river at south edge of first group of large rocks 
projecting into river. It is the top of a knob surrounded by a circular chisel 
cut on stone in top course of a dry masonry wall. Point is on north end of 
wall opposite an iron drain pipe. Elevation, 306.269. 

B. M. Eye is in the Gorge on the American side opposite the head of Niagara 
Glen. Bench mark is top of an iron eyebolt set in the north side of a rock pro- 
jecting from the bank 5 feet outside of outer rail of track, 25 feet north of 
trolley pole No. 153, and 14 feet north of north end of dry masonry wall. Eleva- 
tion, 301.995. 

B. M. Red is in the Gorge on the American side opposite the center of Niagara 
Glen between trolley poles Nos. 169 and 170. It is the center of a square 
chiseled on the highest point of a red boulder on the side of the bank outside 
of the tracks, 5^ feet from outer face of dry retaining wall and about 3 feet 
below top of wall. Elevation, 287.257. 

B. M. Rock is in the Gorge on the American side opposite the foot of Niagara 
Glen. It is the center of a square chisel cut on a point of rock projecting from 
the bank inside of the tracks. It is 4.4 feet east of inner rail of tracks and 20 
feet north of trolley pole No. 190. Elevation, 286.348. 

B. M. Devils Hole is in the Gorge on the American side abreast of the Devils 
Hole tablet. It is center of a square chisel cut on flat rock 8.2 feet west of 
outer rail and 8.2 feet north of northwest corner of abutment of small bridge. 
Elevation, 277.775. 

B. M. Wall is in the Gorge on the American side about two-thirds of the 
way from the Devils Hole to the transmission line crossing near trolley pole 
No. 225. It is a square chisel cut on top of the bottom stone in the center of a 
masonry wall on east side of tracks 20 feet from south end of wall and 4.5 feet 
south of a drill hole 3 feet above ground in one of the bottom stones of the 
wall. Elevation, 269.752. 

B. M. Transmission is in the Gorge on the American side under the transmis- 
sion line crossing of the Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power Co. It is the 
center of a square chisel cut on top of boulder outside of Gorge tracks and op- 
posite most northerly transmission tower. It is 4.3 feet northwest of trolley 
pole No. 237. Elevation, 268.792. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 247 

B. M. Stone is in the Gorge on the American side north of the transmission 
line crossing. It is the highest point on a brown stone 2 feet west of the guard 
rail and 12 paces south of trolley pole No. 250. Elevation, 266.378. 

B. M. Lower Gorge Gauge is in the Gorge on the American side 54 paces south 
of B. M. South. It is a square cut on a large boulder 5 feet from and 2 feet 
above the water's edge at mean stage. It was opposite the Lower Gorge gauge. 
Elevation, 253.341. 

B. M. South is in the Gorge on the American side opposite Smeatons Ravine. 
It is the highest point of a stone projecting from the south end of a masonry 
wall on east side of Gorge tracks. The stone is the second large stone from the 
bottom of the wall opposite trolley pole No. 264 and 54 paces north of the 
Lower Gorge gauge. Elevation. 270.357. 

B. M. Fishery is in the Gorge on the American side some distance south of 
Fish Creek. It is the highest point of the reddest stone in the northwest corner 
of a dry masonry wall topped with concrete on the south side of the stairs 
leading down to a fish dock between trolley poles Nos. 276 and 277. Elevation, 
270.882. 

B. M. Fish Creek is in the Gorge on the American side on the Gorge Railway 
bridge over Fish Creek. It is a square cut on the northwest stone of the north 
abutment of the bridge, 6 paces south of trolley pole No. 295. Elevation, 
284.754. 

B. M. Boulder is in the Gorge on the American side north of the Lewiston 
suspension bridge and near north end of bridge of the Gorge Railway over a 
deep gulley. It is a square cut on west edge of a bowlder 6 feet north of north 
end of bridge and 2 feet east of guard rail, opposite trolley pole No. 321. Eleva- 
tion, 306.825. 

B. M. Lewiston Gauge is in Lewiston, N. Y. It is a square cut on a large 
stone projecting a few inches out of the ground and about 50 feet northeast of 
the northeast corner of Pitz's dock. Elevation, 253.175. 

B. M. Pitz is in Lewiston, N. Y. It is the top of a three-fourth-inch gas pipe 
projecting 1\ inches out of the concrete walk at the southeast corner of the 
veranda of the "Anglers Retreat " hotel. Elevation, 292.627. 

B. M. Monument is in Lewiston, N. Y. It is the northwest corner of the 
top of a concrete monument about 6 inches square and 8 inches high at the 
northeast corner of Center and Third Streets. Elevation, 254.873. 

Table No. 25. — Bench marks along the Niagara River established previous to 
1917 oy the United States Lake Survey, the Board of Engineers for Deep 
Watemoays, and others. 

[Note. — Elevations are given in feet above mean tide at Sandy Hook according to the 
precise level adjustments of 1903. Bench marks marked with an asterisk (*) have 
had their elevations determined by precise levels, others by ordinary wye levels.] 

*P. B. M. Buffalo Lighthouse is in Buffalo, N. Y., on plinth of the old Buffalo 
Light (now abandoned) south of the United States pier and in line with Erie 
Street, being the top of a high point on the east corner and upper surface of 
plinth. Elevator, 590.101. 

*P. B. M. Waterworks is in Buffalo, N. Y., on stone window sill of center 
window on the river side of the main building of the old pumping station of 
the Buffalo waterworks near the foot of Massachusetts Avenue, being the center 
of a brass bolt leaded horizontally into stone 6 inches from north end of sill and 
35 inchs above the watertable at the ground, marked thus : 

U. S. 

o 

P. B. M. 

Elevation, 582.804. 

*P. B. M. International Bridge No. 2 is in Buffalo, N. Y., on a projection of 
stone in fourth course of masonry below bridge seat on north end of east abut- 
ment of International Bridge over main channel of Niagara River, being a 
square cut on stone 5.70 feet below bridge seat and 3.77 feet back of the north- 
west corner of abutment, the stone above being marked in white paint thus: 

U. S. B. M. 
88 

Elevation, 582.258. 

*P. M. B. Guard Lock is in Buffalo, N. Y., in the center of coping stone on 
towpath side of guard lock of old Erie Canal, 650 yards below the Interna- 
tional Bridge over the Black Rock Ship Canal at Black Rock, being the highest 
point in a small square cut in the southeast corner of a larger square which 



248 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

is opposite the hinge of the upper gate and 23 feet below upper end of lock, 
marked thus : Elevation, 576.454. 

[Note. — The elevation given on page 2719 of the Chief of Engineers' Report 
for 1903 is 576.650, which is incorrect.] 

P. B. M. Sill is on the stone sill of the basement window on the west side of 
the office of the Buffalo Smelting Works, at the foot of Austin Street, Black 
Rock, Buffalo, N. Y., being a smoothed square sunk slightly below the level of 
the sill. Elevation, 574.762. 

*P. B. M. Tonawanda No. 1 is in Tonawanda, N. Y., on stone water table on 
west side of steeple of Christian Chapel Church, a red brick building on south- 
east corner of Broad and Seymore Streets, being the intersection of two cross 
marks cut in center of large square on top of stone. Elevation, 576.214. 

*P. B. M. North Tonawanda No. 2 is in North Tonawanda, N. Y., on stone 
water table 6£ feet south of entrance to the old engine house (marked " 1873 ") 
of the Tonawanda Iron & Steel Co., situated on the right bank of the Niagara 
River and on the west side of Main Street, being the top of a small square in 
the northeast corner of a large square cut in corner of stone. Elevation, 
578.822. 

*P. B. M. Whcatfield is in Wheatiield Township, N. Y., on the south end of 
stone water table on east front of brick schoolhouse, which is in district No. 2, 
and stands on the right bank of the Niagara River and on the main road 560 
yards below the Edgewater Bridge of the International Railway, being a square 
cut on stone. Elevation, 576.541. 

*P. B. M. La Salle No. 1 is in La Salle, N. Y., just south of the La Salle sta- 
tion, on the northwest corner of bridge seat of east abutment of the New York 
Central Railroad bridge over Cayuga Creek, being the top of a square cut on 
stone. Elevation, 571.611. 

*P. B. M. La Salle No. 2 is in La Salle, N. Y., on the top of the water table 
at the southeast corner of brick residence belonging to Mr. E. H. Smith, about 
one-fourth mile west of New York Central Railroad station, on main road 
along the river front, being the too of a brass bolt leaded vertically into the 
water table Elevation, 580.290. 

*P. B. M. Ecliota is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on the west end of stone doorsill 
of west door on south side of the New York Central Railroad station, called 
" Echota," being the top of a small square in the southeast corner of a larger 
square cut on the stone. Elevation, 572.922. 

*P. B. M. Niagara No. 1 is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on a stone 5^ inches 
square, with a small square cut on northwest corner, used as reference stone 
for the center line of the tunnel of the Niagara Falls Power Plant, and is set 
in concrete in the gutter about 10 feet northwest of entrance to power house 
No. 1 of the Niagara Falls Power Co., 10 feet north of north door jamb and 3 
feet out from building, being the top of a copper bolt leaded in the center of 
the stone. Elevation, 566.547. 

* P. B. M. Niagara No. 2 is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on window sill of. first 
window west of northeast corner of Niagara Falls Power Co.'s power house 
No. 1, being the top of a brass bolt leaded vertically in east end of stone, 5} 
feet from front of building, 5 inches back from front edge of window sill, 7 
inches west of east side of window and on side of building facing Buffalo 
Avenue. Elevation, 571.827. 

P. B. M. Copper Bolt is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on the retaining wall on the 
southerly side of the canal of the Niagara Falls Power Co., 87 feet west of 
power house No. 2, being the top of a copper bolt leaded into the top of the 
coping stone. Elevation, 567.216. 

T. B. M. Paper is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on the wall on the northerly side 
of the intake canal of the Niagara Falls Power Co. at the west end, being 
the top of the west anchor bolt holding a large iron chock just west of the 
automatic gauge of the power company. Elevation, 567,288. 

P. B. M. Port Day is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on the west side of the canal 
of the Hudraulic Power Co. at its head, 25 feet from the Niagara River, 50 
feet from the canal, 18 feet from an iron electric light pole. 6 feet from a double 
boxwood tree, being the top of a conical iron bolt leaded into the top of a cut 
stone 6 inches square projecting 4 inches above the surface of the ground. 
Elevation, 567.165. 

P. B. M. Park is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on the northeast corner of the 
administration building, New York State reservation, directly under north 
window on the east side of the building, 10.3 feet from the northeast corner, 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 249 

being the top of a brass bolt leaded vertically into the water table, marked 
thus 

U. S. 


B. M. 
Elevation, 556.406. 

B. M. Triangle Terrapin is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., at the Goat Island 
end of the Horseshoe Falls, being the top of a brass bolt leaded vertically into 
the large bowlder known as " Terrapin Rock." The word "Terrapin " is cut 
in rude letters around the bolt. Elevation, 511.119. 

B. M. Terrapin Gauge is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., at the Goat Island end 
of the Horseshoe Falls, being the top of a rounded knob on a small projecting 
ledge on the south side of " Terrapin Rock." Elevation, 509.665. 

P. B. M. Arch is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., on the retaining wall at the east 
abutment of the upper steel arch bridge, being the top of a brass bolt leaded 
vertically into the stone, 20.4 feet southwest of the southwest edge of bridge 
plate. 1.55 feet from outer edge of wall, and 29.1 feet from southwest end of 
wall, marked 

U. S. 

O 
B. M. 

Elevation. 361.172. 

P. B. M. Toll is in Niagara Falls, Ontario, being a point on stone in the 
fourth course below middle window on the west side of the Canadian customs 
and toll station at the west end of the upper steel arch bridge. Elevation, 
525.918. 

P. B. M. Chippawa- is in Chippawa, Ontario, being a square cut on top of 
stone water table at southwest corner of Baltimore Hotel, on the corner of 
Front and Bridgewater Streets. Elevation, 571.670. 

P. B. M. Black Creek is in Black Creek, Ontario, being a square cut on the 
southwest corner of upper plate under the northwest corner of the highway 
bridge over Black Creek. Elevation, 570.554. 

P. B. M. Bridge No. 1 is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., being the top of a brass 
bolt leaded vertically into the top of a large bowlder at south end of retaining 
wall at abutment of Michigan Central Railroad bridge over Niagara River. 
The bolt is 15 feet from abutment and 113 feet from inclined railway building, 
marked thus: 

P. B. M. 

O 
U. S. 
Elevation, 363.580. 

P. B. M. Bridge No. 2 is at Niagara Falls, N. Y., 6 feet from the water's edge, 
362 feet south of the south side of the abutment of Michigan Central Railroad 
bridge in the gorge, being the top of a brass bolt leaded vertically into a large 
flat rock marked 

U. S. 

o 

P. B. M. 

Elevation, 345.284. 

*P. B. M. Suspension Bridge is in Niagara Falls, N. Y., in the northwest cor- 
ner of the Suspension Bridge passenger station of the New York Central Rail- 
road, being the center of a brass bolt leaded horizontally into center of seventh 
stone above the water table, 43 inches above the platform and 6 inches south of 
the northwest corner of the building. Elevation, 584.377. 

P. B. M. Whirl is on the American side of the Niagara Gorge at the whirlpool 
on the ledge of flat rock extending into the river at the point, only a few 
inches above mean stage of the river (often submerged), 20 feet from the west 
edge of the ledge, 35 feet from the north edge and 35 feet from the corner, 
being the top of a brass bolt leaded vertically into the rock and marked 

B. M. 

o 

WHIRL 

Elevation, 294.426. 

P. B. M. Whirlpool is on the Canadian side of the Niagara Gorge at tbe 
whirlpool. 750 feet from point at entrance to whirlpool, 275 feet south ot u 



250 DIVEKSION OF WATER FROM GKNAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

small creek, being the top of an iron bolt leaded vertically into the top of rock 
ledge 1.9 feet from its water edge, marked 

U. S. 

o 

P. B. M. 

When established in 1906 the above description was written and the eleva- 
tion was reported as 297.040. In 1909 it was found that the part of the rock 
on which the bench is situated had been broken from the ledge forming a large 
irregular fragment and that the elevation had been somewhat changed. In 
1917 leveling from P. B. M. Pool determined the elevation to be 296.977. 

P. B. M. Pool is on the Canadian side of the Niagara Gorge at the Whirlpool, 
about 40 feet north of P. B. M. Whirlpool, on the same ledge of rock (not broken 
off here) close to the water's edge, being the top of a brass bolt leaded verti- 
cally into the ledge, marked 

B. M. 

O 
POOL 
Elevation, 297.731. 

* P. B. M. University is about 2 miles north of Niagara Falls, N. Y., and 65 
yards east of top of Gorge of Niagara River, in west corner of main building of 
Niagara University, being the center of a brass bolt leaded horizontally into 
stone 41 inches east of corner and 20 inches above ground. Elevation, 589.352. 

* T B. M, No. 31 is in Lewiston Heights, N. Y., on top of retaining wall on 
south side of wagon road, 10 feet north of center of track of the New York 
Central Railroad and 39 feet east of northeast corner of Lewiston Heights 
Station, being the top of a small square cut on large stone. Elevation, 530.919. 

* P. B. M. Lewiston Heights No. 2 is 111 yards east of the center of Lewiston 
Heights Station, N. Y., in face of solid ledge rock on upper side of wagon road 
leading down from Lewiston Heights Station to Lewiston, being the center of a 
brass bolt leaded horizontally in vertical face of rock, 21 inches below top of 
ledge, and marked thus, in 3-inch letters : 

U. S. 

O 
P. B. M. 

Elevation, 506.404. 

*P. B. M. Lewiston is in Lewiston, N. Y., at corner of Center and Ninth 
Streets, on the northwest corner of stone door sill of north door of west wing 
of old Seminary Building, being a square cut on stone. Elevation, 401.331. 

*P. B. M. Murphy is in Lewiston, N. Y., on south side of Center Street, 
between Fourth and Fifth Streets, being a square cut on water table of north- 
east corner of foundation of brick store owned by Eugene Murphy. Elevation, 
363.34. 

Topography. — A general topographic map was prepared showing 
the Niagara River from above Cayuga Island to below Lewiston. 
Along the Canadian shore a strip of country about half a mile wide 
is depicted, while on the American side the map covers a triangle 
about 6 miles wide and 7 miles long. This area includes the ground 
covered by all the American power development projects of merit 
which have been proposed. The map is shown on plates Nos. 13 and 14. 

For the most important part of this map a very careful transit 
and stadia survey was made. The area covered is roughly bounded 
by the Military Road, Fish Creek, the top of the Gorge, Bloody Run, 
Whirlpool Avenue, Sugar Street, and the New York Central Rail- 
road tracks. This amounts to about 12 square miles. The work was 
thoroughly and carefully performed. All details that properly 
should show on a 1 : 10000 map were located, and enough elevations 
were taken for the plotting of contours with a vertical interval of 
2 feet. 

The rest of the map was compiled from various sources, including 
maps of the Board of Engineers for Deep Waterways, the Lake 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 251 

Survey, the Geological Survey, the city of Niagara Falls, and the 
two American power companies, corrections and additions being 
obtained by fragmentary surveys and reconnaissance. 

A special survey was made of the American bank of the Gorge 
from above the Devils Hole to below Fish Creek. This was done by 
transit and stadia, supplemented by a " hand transit." The results 
are incorporated in the large topographic map, and are also given 
separately on a larger scale on plate No. 16. Practically all the pro- 
posed lower river power-house sites are located within the limits of 
this survey. 

The transit and stadia surveys involved a large number of closed 
traverses which were tied in horizontally to several existing triangu- 
lation stations, and vertically to several precise bench marks. The 
latitude, longitude, and elevation of each transit station or stake 
was computed carefully, and the point plotted accurately. All side 
shots were plotted with large Colby protractor. By such methods a 
map of great accuracy has been obtained. 

Rock Soundings. — In making estimates of the cost of a power canal 
from the upper river to the edge of the lower Gorge it was necessary 
to know the depth of earth that would be found on top of the rock 
along the various proposed routes. The only data available was a 
line of rock soundings near Military Road made by the Deep Water- 
ways Board, and a few records of city sewer surveys at Niagara Falls. 
To supplement this data an extensive rock survey was made over the 
areas between the Military Road and Sugar Street. 

The soundings were made with a series of hexagonal tool steel rods. 
The first rod was If inches in diameter and 4 feet long. It was driven 
into the ground with sledges until only about half a foot remained 
above ground. It was then pulled out by means of a special " puller," 
consisting of a series of levers, and the next rod was inserted in the 
hole. This rod was 1-| inches in diameter and 7 feet long, and was 
driven and pulled in the same manner. 

This process was continued, each rod being an eighth of an inch 
smaller and 3 feet longer, until rock was struck. The longest rod 
used was three-fourths inch in diameter and 25 feet long. A longer 
rod of five-eighths inch size was provided, but could not be used be- 
cause it was too flexible to be inserted in the hole without use of a 
small gin pole or derrick. 

The work was carried on under great difficulties throughout the 
coldest winter ever recorded in this region. Photographs Nos. 69 
to 71 illustrate the process. No. 69 shows a rod being driven and No. 
70 shows the pulling machine in operation. The rock surface was 
overlaid with a foot or two of hardpan and bowlders, and this often 
bent and twisted the rods so that two heavy screw jacks had to be 
used to pull them, as is shown in photograph No. 71. 

Altogether 60 rock soundings were made. They are plotted on the 
general topographic map, plates Nos. 13 and 14. 

Other field work performed included an examination of the Welland 
Canal, a reconnaissance of the route of the proposed Erie & Ontario 
Sanitary Canal, and various inspections of the new construction 
under way on both sides of the river at Niagara Falls. 

The most difficult and important part of the office work was the 
designing and estimating of proposed power development projects 
for the use of water diverted from Niagara River. A great deal of 



252 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

time was spent on this work, studying the situation and the various 
problems involved, consulting informally with engineers, contractors, 
and others familiar with these matters, making outline designs, and 
preparing and checking estimates. In this connection a careful 
study was made of all the reports submitted by those interested in 
Niagara power development. The detailed description of this work 
is given in Section F of this report. 

Next in importance to the power projects was the matter of reme- 
dial works above the Horseshoe Falls. A large amount of time was 
spent in the study of this problem and in the preparation of outline 
plans and estimates. These are given in Section E. 

Other office operations not already specifically noted included 
reduction and study of data pertaining to the Chicago Drainage 
Canal, and the assembling and examination of data pertaining to 
various phases of the investigation. The preparation of the report 
has been a task requiring a large amount of time. 

W. S. Richmond. 



Appendix C. 

J 

PRESERVATION OF SCENIC BEAUTY OF NIAGARA 
FALLS AND OF THE RAPIDS OF NIAGARA RIVER. 



[Lieutenant Jones's report.] 

August 26, 1919. 

From : First Lieut. Albert B. Jones, Engineers, United States Army. 
To : The Division Engineer, Lakes Division, Buffalo, N. Y. 
Subject: Report on preservation of scenic beauty of Niagara Falls 
and of the rapids of Niagara River. 

There is submitted herewith report on preservation of scenic 
beauty of Niagara Falls and of the rapids of Niagara River. 

Albert B. Jones, 
First Lieutenant, Engineers. 



I. THE PROBLEM. 

Preliminary. — The Falls of Niagara are probably the most famous 
scenic marvel in the world. Except for the distant and inaccessible 
Zambesi Fall in Africa, no other cataract approaches it in majesty 
and power. The staggering rush of this great volume of water, the 
roar of its descent, and the rainbow-marked column of ascending 
spray form a spectacle which for 240 years has excited the awe ana 
admiration of all beholders. No place in this country is so well 
known to Europeans, and even visitors from China and Japan are 
anxious to view the famous cataract. Neither is the place without 
honor in its own country. No great natural feature in the United 
States is visited by as many Americans as Niagara Falls. The offi- 
cers in charge of the New York State reservation estimate the annual 
number of visitors at one and one-half million persons. Many of 
these come from a great distance, and their average expenditure for 
the trip is estimated at $25 apiece, or a total of $37,000,000 per 
annum. 

The money these sightseers spend each year is, in a measure, an 
indication of the value of the scenic beauty of the Falls. These 
people feel that to have experienced the sublimity and grandeur of 
the cataract and its surroundings has been an adequate return for an 
expenditure of $37,000,000 per year. Such an expenditure, by the 
people of a Nation commonly accused of u money-grubbing commer- 
cialism is surely a sign of our aesthetic salvation. In this way the 
Falls are a great national asset, intangible, it is true, and not to be 
measured in dollars and cents, but nevertheless of immense value to 
the spiritual and artistic life of the Nation. The destruction or 
serious defacement of this great spectacle for the sake of developing 

253 



254 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

water power, or for any other object, would be a piece of intolerable 
vandalism to which the people of this country would never submit. 

Fifteen years ago it appeared possible that such a defacement was 
impending and water-power development was accordingly checked 
by the Burton Act and the subsequent treaty with Great Britain. 
By its terms the Burton Act was a temporary measure. It was like 
the temporary injunction issued by courts of equity which forbids a 
certain act to be done until investigation shows whether or not its 
consequences will be harmful to the plaintiff. The investigation has 
now been made, and it remains only to determine what are the proper 
limits that should be placed upon power development to prevent dam- 
age to the scenic beauty of the Falls. 

The water power also has its imaginative and spiritual appeal. It 
represents in a most dramatic way the triumph of man over matter. 
The very name " Niagara " has become proverbial as representing the 
great forces of nature in one of their more irresistible and uncon- 
trollable manifestations and yet a part of this awe-inspiring force 
has been harnessed to the service of man. The record of the energy 
and persistence of the pioneers who developed the great hydraulic 
and electric installations at Niagara forms a bright page in the his- 
tory of science and engineering. 

Aside from the direct monetary value of the electric power, these 
developments have also great value as a cultural and civilizing force. 
The presence of large amounts of cheap power at Niagara has been 
the chief moving force behind the recent advance of the electro- 
chemical industries, and this advance has been revolutionary. Com- 
pare conditions now with those of 1890, when the first large power 
house was building. Then aluminum was a laboratory curiosity 
worth $10 or $12 a pound ; now it is an every-day necessity and costs 
little more than copper. Then steel was a simple alloy of iron and 
carbon; to-day nearly every tool of the mechanic is hardened or 
toughened with silicon, chromium, titanium, or some other product 
of the electric furnace. Then emery and graphite were valuable min- 
erals whose visible supply was rapidly decreasing; now carborundum 
and artificial graphite are driving the natural supply from the 
market by their cheapness and uniformly high quality. To these 
must be added calcium carbide and acetylene gas, liquid chlorine, 
artificial gems, and many other products quite unknown or not com- 
mercially available 28 years ago. These things have revolutionized 
our way of living in many ways, ranging from cookery to transpor- 
tation. The farmer stimulates his crops with fertilizers seized from 
the atmosphere by Niagara power. The food he grows is cooked in 
vessels of Niagara aluminum with water purified by liquid chlorine 
from the same source. It is no exaggeration to say that modern 
aeroplanes and motor cars would be impossible without the aid of 
the aluminum, abrasives, and alloy steels developed by Niagara 
power. 

These things belong to the past. What beneficial results would 
flow from a further development of this natural resource no one can 
tell, but there is no reason to expect the future to be less productive 
than the past. Rather does science advance by geometrical progres- 
sion, using the gains of to-day as the basis for a broader advance on 
the morrow. Surely we owe it to ourselves and to posterity to de- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 255 

velop this magic power to the utmost limits that are possible with- 
out committing the sacrilege of harming nature's great temple of 
beauty. It may well be that while doing so we can also repair some 
damage that has already been done by the hand of man and by that 
process of natural decay which tends to destroy all waterfalls. 

In short, our problem reduces itself to this : What can be done to 
repair existing damage to the beauty of the Falls and how much 
more power can be developed without doing further damage? 

Description of the Falls and rapids. — For the study of this prob- 
lem a thorough knowledge of the different parts of the Falls and 
rapids is necessary. In Section A of this report will be found a de- 
scription of the river as a whole with its relations to the adjacent 
lakes. The features having a scenic interest will now be described in 
more detail. The items described will all be found on the topo- 
graphic map on photographs 13 and 14 of this report. In photo- 
graphs Nos. 72 to 129 are a collection of views of the most important 
scenic features under various conditions of stage and diversion. 1 
Photograph No. 72 shows summer and winter panoramic views taken 
from the Canadian edge of the Gorge a little ways above the bridge. 
Photograph No. 73 is another panorama taken from " Falls View." 
The other photographs are pictures of the individual features. 

The upper Niagara River down to Port Day is a stream of no par- 
ticular scenic value. Just below this point Goat Island divides the 
stream into two channels, the right hand or northeasterly, of which 
forms the "American or Goat Island Rapids." Photographs Nos. 
74 to 76 show these rapids. This is one of the most beautiful rapids, 
especially the part below the bridge, not shown in the pictures. It 
consists of a series of cascades and chutes divided up by a number 
of small wooded islands. The contrast between the dark green of the 
islands and the foaming breakers and white waters of the rapids is 
very beautiful, especially in bright weather. These rapids are 2,500 
feet long and from 400 to 1,200 feet wide. Their average flow under 
present conditions is perhaps 9,000 cubic feet per second. 

Southeast of Goat Island lies the " Canadian or Horseshoe Rapids." 
These begin with a series of long cascades extending from the Three 
Sister Islands across the stream to the Dufferin Islands. Below the 
cascades the rapids flow swiftly down a wide and steep incline of 
rock; some parts are quite shallow. While some views of this rapid 
give a sensation of power and swiftness, there is but little of beauty 
or grandeur in it except at the cascades. The Canadian Rapids are 
shown in photographs Nos. 78 to 81 and still better in photograph 
No. 73. They are about 3,000 feet long and the width varies from 
3,500 to 1,200 feet. Under present conditions the average flow just 
above the Falls is about 150,000 cubic feet per second. 

At the foot of the American Rapids the water drops over a verti- 
cal cliff into the Gorge, forming the "American Fall." This is prob- 
ably the most beautiful and best known feature of Niagara. It can 
be seen to advantage from Prospect Point, Luna Island, Goat Island, 
the International Bridge, and the Canadian side, and is the detail 
most often selected for reproduction in photographs and paintings. 
It is shown in photographs Nos. 82 to 90, also in Nos. 72 and 73. 



1 See also supplementary report on p. 281 



256 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The crest line is about 1,000 feet long and only slightly curved. 
Over this crest the water rushes with an average depth of 1^ feet 
and an average velocity of 6 feet per second and plunges vertically 
down onto the huge rocks piled at the foot of the cliff. The height 
of the fall is 167 feet. At the southwest end Luna Island separates 
the last 60 feet from the main fall. This section is known as the 
" Luna Fall " or " Bridal Veil Fall." Prospect Point is the best 
viewpoint for the American Falls and, being easy of access, is the 
most visited point of Niagara. Here the visitor finds the whole roar- 
ing rush and power of the Falls at his very feet. A still greater 
effect of irresistible power is felt when this cataract is viewed from 
the talus slop at the foot of the cliff below Prospect Point. Here 
the rock itself trembles from the impact of the falling waters. 

The " Horseshoe or Canadian Fall " lies south and west of the 
American Falls and is separated from it by Goat Island. This fall 
has a tremendous flow of water, sixteen times as much as the Ameri- 
can Falls, but for several reasons it fails to make a proportionate 
effect. The original horseshoe shaped crestline which gave it its 
name has gradually been eaten away until now the plan is a curved 
V as shown on plate No. 18. The apex of this notch is not ordi- 
narily visible from any point of view. The greater bulk of the water 
rushes into this notch and sends up a cloud of spray and mist which 
nearly always forms an impenetrable curtain in front of this part 
of the fall. 

Photographs Nos. 91 to 104 and Nos. 72 and 73 show different views 
of the Horseshoe Falls, but it was impossible to get one showing the 
face of the Falls at this notch. Even without the spray the shape 
of the crest is such that only a distant and foreshortened view would 
be possible. 

At ordinary stages the parts of the Falls adjacent to the notch 
show a spectacle comparable to the American Falls, but only to be 
seen from a distance. The ends are the only parts which can be ap- 
proached by the observer and these show only a meager display. 
The flow is not continuous along their crest, but is broken in sev- 
eral places. At very low stage many stretches of bare rock are visi- 
ble and the flow is reduced to small detached streams; see photo- 
graphs Nos. 95 and 97, observing that these were taken at a moder- 
ately low stage and that conditions are often much worse than the 
pictures show. 

The crest line of the Horseshoe Falls is 2,600 feet long. The height 
is 162 feet and the average flow under present conditions is about 
150,000 cubic feet per second. 

At the head of the Gorge below the Falls is the stretch of quiet 
water called in this report the " Maid-of-the-Mist Pool." This is 
shown in photographs Nos. 72, 73, and. 105. The Pool is a body of 
deep, comparatively quiet water extending from the foot of the Falls 
to the railroad bridges and surrounded by walls of rock 200 feet 
high. Its upper part is navigated by two small steamers. The water 
at the head of the Pool is stirred into foam by the Falls. Elsewhere 
it is black and quiet except just below the highway bridge, where it 
receives the discharge of the Niagara Falls Power Co.'s tunnel. 
This discharges 10 per cent more water than the American Falls and 
creates a wake of whitecaps and broken water clear across to the 
Canadian shore. The tail-water from all the power plants is dis- 






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DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 257 

charged into this pool and three of the power houses are on its banks 
at the foot of the cliffs. 

The Maid-of-the-Mist Pool is 12,000 feet long. It has an aver- 
age width of 850 feet and a maximum of 1,400. Its greatest depth 
is not known, but a sounding of 192 feet has been recorded. 

At the foot of the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool the river narrows sharply 
to a width of about 360 feet at the railroad bridges. The next mile 
of the river is known as the " Whirlpool Rapids." These are the 
most spectacular rapids. The width is only about 400 feet except 
near the lower end, where it widens to 800. The cliffs are from 230 
to 270 feet high and are very precipitous, especially on the American 
side. The bottom of this deep gorge is obstructed by great masses 
of rock, over which the water dashes tumultously, reaching velocities 
of more than 30 feet per second. Breakers and standing waves are 
formed on a larger scale than anywhere else. Photographs Nos. 106 
to 113 illustrate these rapids. 

At the foot of these rapids is the "Whirlpool." This is an im- 
mense elliptical basin 1,700 feet long and 1,200 feet wide surrounded 
by banks 280 feet high. The water enters from the southeast and 
circles around rapidly in a counterclockwise direction, eventually 
making its escape through the outlet to the northeast by passing 
under the incoming stream. Logs and other drift frequently circle 
the Whirlpool for weeks before making their escape. The deepest 
sounding that has been made in the Whirlpool is 126 feet. No com- 
prehensive view of the Whirlpool is available, but photographs Nos. 
116 to 119, taken to show the head of Lower Rapids, give glimpses of 
the Pool. 

From the Whirlpool the water rushes violently through the narrow 
gap shown in plates 115 to 119 and enters the " Lower Rapids." These 
are a little more than 2 miles long. They are similar to the Whirlpool 
Rapids except that the velocities are not quite so great and the cliffs 
are less steep. For the first half mile the width is about 600 feet. 
Below this the Gorge is obstructed by a mass of rock on the Canadian 
side known as " Fosters Flats " or " Niagara Glen." For half a mile 
abreast of the flats the rapids are almost equal to those above the 
Whirlpool. The narrowest part of the river, in fact, the narrowest 
part of the Great Lakes system from Duluth to the sea occurs near 
the head of Fosters Flats, where the width is about 310 feet. The 
portion of the rapids below the flats is from 500 to 800 feet wide, 
with increasing depths and diminishing velocities until some dis- 
tance above the Suspension Bridge the term " rapids " is hardly ap- 
plicable and below the bridge the current is quite moderate and the 
river is navigable for the largest boats. The cliffs of the lower gorge 
reach a maximum height of 310 feet. Pictures of the Lower Rapids 
are shown on photographs Nos. 120 to 129. 

Effect of stage and of diversions. — The amount of water flowing 
through the Niagara River depends primarily upon the elevation of 
Lake Erie at Buffalo ; the higher the lake the greater the flow in the 
river. This relation may be expressed with sufficient accuracy for 
present purposes by the formula — 

Q=3,904 (H-558.37) 3 /* 
where Q is the discharge of the river in cubic feet per second and H 
is the elevation of Lake Erie at the Buffalo gauge. This formula is 

2788Q—21 17 



258 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

derived from current meter measurements made from the Interna- 
tional Bridge at Black Rock by the United States Lake Survey and 
has been checked by measurements at two other sections. An auto- 
matic water gauge has been maintained at Buffalo since 1898. By 
combining the records of this gauge with the formula given above the 
fluctuations of the river flow can be studied. 

In the 21 years since this gauge was established the yearly mean 
discharge has varied from a minimum of 184,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond in 1901 to a maximum of 218,000 cubic feet per second in 1913. 
The variations in the daily mean flow are much larger, but values 
greater than 235,000 cubic feet per second or less than 160,000 are 
very rare, seldom occurring oftener than two or three times a year. 
During heavy gales the elevation at Buffalo undergoes very great 
fluctuations which last only a few minutes. On December 7, 1909, at 
5.28 p. m., the gauge recorded 580.28, and on February 1, 1915, at 6.54 
p. m., it was 567.38. These are the maximum and minimum heights 
in the gauge book. Applying the formula given above would indicate 
corresponding discharges of 400,000 and 106,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond respectively. As a matter of fact, it requires several hours for 
the effect of a large change in the Buffalo gauge to reach the Falls, 
and as these extremes last for only a few minutes the maximum and 
minimum flows at the Falls were probably much more moderate than 
these figures would indicate. 

By computing the elevation at Buffalo from that recorded at 
Cleveland it is possible to use a longer series of years. Using the 
51 years beginning in 1861, the mean discharge of the Niagara River 
is 207,000 cubic feet per second. This has been adopted as the stand- 
ard for this report. It corresponds to the gauge heights shown on the 
profile on plate No. 11. 

The effect of diversions of water from the river is very nearly the 
same as the effect of a low stage of Lake Erie except that only the 
portion of the river between the point where the water is taken out 
and the point where it is returned is affected. The present diversions 
for power affect the appearance of the American and Canadian 
Rapids and the American and Horseshoe Falls, but not the Whirl- 
pool Rapids or the Lower Rapids. The proposed developments with 
a 300-foot head would affect these also, as do the diversions of the 
Welland Canal, the New York State Barge Canal, and the Chicago 
Drainage Canal. 

Photographs Nos. 74 to 127 show the appearance of the different 
falls and rapids at various stages. One set was taken at extremely 
high stage and one at about the mean stage. It was unfortunately im- 
possible to get a set at extremely low stage, although no effort was 
spared, and the third set shows conditions only a little below mean 
stage. 1 Each picture is marked with the date and time when it was 
taken, and the computed flow of the river at that time. In addition, 
those showing the Falls or the rapids above the Falls are marked with 
the computed flow over the Falls. In studying these pictures it should 
be borne in mind that the average flow of the river is 207,000 cubic 
feet per second ; that originally this all went over the Falls, but that 
at present the power diversion amounts to about 50,000 cubic feet per 
second, and the flow over the Falls averages 157,000. 

1 See also supplementary report on p. 281. 



DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 259 

Photographs Nos. 74 to 80 show the Canadian and American Rapids 
above the £ alls with the flow over the Falls ranging from 155,000 to 
245,000 cubic feet per second. It appears that change of stage does 
not have a very great effect on the beauty of the rapids. The Ameri- 
can Rapids looks better in the extreme high stage of photograph No. 
76, but this is partly due to the fact that better lighting conditions on 
that day gave a better photograph. The same is true of photograph 
Xo. 80 of the Canadian Rapids. The only place whose beauty suffers 
badly is the northwest corner of the Canadian Rapids, where the un- 
sightly shoal shown in photograph No. 81 is much more conspicuous 
at low stage. 

The American Falls is shown in photographs Nos. 82 to 90. It is 
rather sensitive to changes of stage. Photographs Nos. 87 and 89 
show this particularly well despite the fact that No. 89 is a very poor 
photograph because of the spray. At the low stage the crest is but 
thinly covered, and the water shows an angular drop as it passes over. 
At the high stage the rock ledges of the crest are practically invisible 
and the water leaps into the Gorge in a beautiful parabolic curve. 
Photograph No. 90 is taken from a higher point of view and shows the 
thinness of the Falls at low stage still more plainly. On the not un- 
common days when the flow over the Falls is reduced to 140,000 cubic 
feet per second this affect is, of course, very much worse than the pic- 
tures show. 

Of all the natural features at Niagara the Horseshoe Falls is the 
one most affected by change of stage. This is illustrated in photo- 
graphs Nos. 91 to 104. The appearance of the " notch," as far as it is 
visible at all, is not appreciably different at high stage or at low, but 
on either end of the Falls the effects are striking. Photograph No. 93 
shows both ends of the Falls from Goat Island at a very high stage 
when the flow over the Falls was 245,000 cubic feet per second. At 
both ends there is a continuously buried crest line with a rush of 
white water over it comparable with the American Falls at its best. 
Photograph No. 96 shows the west end and photographs Nos. 99, 
101, and 104 show the east end on the same day. Compare these with 
the pictures taken from the same points on days when the flow over the 
Falls was reduced to 155,000 or 165,000. Photographs Nos. 102 and 
103 show the broken crest line and separated streams at the east end 
where at high stage there was the splendid display of photograph No. 
104. Photographs Nos. 97, 98, and 100 show how the bare black rocks 
of the cliff are exposed at low water, while in Nos. 99 and 101 they are 
concealed behind their full veil of falling water. Photograph No. 95 
is the most striking of all. 

It must be emphasized that although this picture and No. 96 in- 
clude somewhat different amounts of background, they were taken 
from exactly the same spot. If the right-hand part of No. 95 be 
covered up as far as a vertical line through the left-hand ventilator 
on the roof of the power house, these two are exactly comparable. 
The slimy, unsightly ledges of rock in the foreground of 95 form 
the crest over which the magnificent cataract of 96 is plunging. It 
should also be noticed that photograph No. 95 shows several thou- 
sand cubic feet per second more than the average flow under present 
conditions, and that stages a great deal lower than this are not at 



260 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

all uncommon. 1 The appearance of the face of this part of the 
Falls at high and mean stage is shown on Nos. 92 and 93. 

The Maid-of-the-Mist Pool is not noticeably changed in appear- 
ance by change of stage, and the same is true of the Whirlpool. 
The beauty of these places resides more in the vertical cliffs and 
steep, wooded talus slopes than in the stream at the bottom of the 
Gorge. 

In the Whirlpool Rapids and Lower Rapids conditions are some- 
what different. Within the range of stage usually encountered 
these rapids are most beautiful at the lower stages. The beauty of 
these rapids is largely due to the huge rocks which break up the 
rushing waters into breakers, standing waves, and flying masses of 
spray and foam. At high stages these rocks are more deeply buried 
and do not produce these effects in anything like the same degree. 
Although the volume and velocity of the water is greater at high 
stages the beauty is less. That volume and velocity alone have little 
scenic value is well illustrated by the outfall of the Niagara Falls 
Power Co. tunnel. The volume of water entering the Maid-of-the- 
Mist Pool through this tunnel is nearly 10,000 cubic feet per second, 
or 10 per cent more than the usual discharge of the American Rapids 
and Falls. Its velocity is in the neighborhood of 40 miles per hour, 
much higher than exists in any of the rapids. Despite the immense 
quantity and velocity, the thing receives very little attention from 
visitors and is scarcely mentioned in printed accounts of the beauties 
of Niagara. 

Photographs Nos. 107 and 108 show the upper end of the Whirl- 
pool Rapids with discharges a little below and a little above the 
average, respectively. The low flow shows slightly larger breakers, 
although this is partly masked by the fact that No. 108 is a better 
photograph, being a shorter exposure in more brilliant light. Photo- 
graph No. 109 is the same place at high stage with a flow of 267,000 
cubic feet per second. This was a long exposure on a very dark day, 
hence the general white and streaked effect of the moving water. 
Nevertheless, a close study will show that the spectacular effects have 
been largely reduced at the higher stage. This is especially marked 
in the case of the mass of foam directly in line with the center of the 
cantilever bridge. Photographs Nos. 110, 111, and 120 show an- 
other view of the Whirlpool Rapids under like conditions. Dis- 
counting the difference in lighting, it is evident that these rapids 
show to better advantage with a discharge of 203,000 than at a higher 
discharge. The large breakers just in line with the two ends of the 
bridge are markedly larger in photograph No. 110, although their 
details have been lost in the longer exposure. 

In the Lower Rapids the same thing holds true. Photographs Nos. 
115 and 116 show it a little. In photographs Nos. 117 to 119 the 
stage appears to make very little difference. No. 123 shows how 
much of the beauty is lost at a high stage, but reappears at the lower 
stages of Nos. 121 and 122. Photograph No. 127 shows the same 
when compared with 125 and 126. These pictures are somewhat 
deceptive, in that a very short exposure in brilliant light is required 
to give a good picture of waves and spray. In each case conditions 
were better in the pictures taken with 217,000 cubic feet per second 

1 See also supplementary report on p. 281. 



DIVEESION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 261 

than in those with 203,000. A careful study of individual waves 
will usually show that the} 7 are larger at the lower stage, and it 
must be borne in mind that the amount of spray and sparkle and 
the general effect upon the eye is commonly in proportion to the size 
of the wave. Of course, if the flow were reduced too far the rocks 
would not produce waves and spray, but would stand up bare with 
water running between them. In other words, there must be a point 
of maximum beauty in the rapids. If the flow be either increased 
or diminished from this point the beauty is decreased. It would 
appear from a careful study of these photographs and from frequent 
observation of these rapids under different conditions for many 
years that this point lies quite a bit below a flow of 200,000 cubic 
feet per second. 

To sum up, it may be said that — 

1. The American Rapids are not much affected by stage, but look 
best with a moderately large flow. 

2. The Canadian Rapids are very little affected by stage, except 
the northwest corner, which require an extremely high stage to cover 
the shoal there. 

3. The American Falls looks best at high stage. 

4. The "notch " of the Horseshoe Falls is of small scenic value at 
any stage. At low stages it is more often visible, because there is 
then less mist. 

5. The ends of the Horseshoe Falls look very poor at low stage 
and poor enough at the ordinary conditions now prevailing. At very 
high stages they are marvelously improved. 

6. The Maid-of-the-Mist Pool and the Whirlpool derive their 
beauty primarily from the Gorge, not the river, and are not affected 
by change of stage. 

7. The Whirlpool Rapids and Lower Rapids are at their best at a 
comparatively low stage. As' the flow increases much of their attrac- 
tion is lost. 

Recession of falls} — It has been recognized by all students of 
Niagara Falls that the Falls are continually eroding their crest and 
thus receding up the river. It is quite evident that the Falls must 
once have been located at the edge of the escarpment at Lewiston and 
have gradually moved back to their present position, excavating the 
Gorge as the} 7 traveled. The time required for this journey is va- 
riously estimated by geologists, but the most authoritative values 
lie between thirty and forty thousand years. 

The manner in which the recession takes place is well described in 
the following extract from folio No. 190 of the Geologic Atlas of the 
United States, published by the United States Geological Survey : 

The brink of the Horseshoe Fulls is formed by 80 feet of hard, massive 
dolomite (Lockport), beneath which is 60 feet of relatively soft shale (Roches- 
ter), extending down nearly to the level of the pool below. (See pi. No. 17.) 
A short distance above the water is another layer of hard limestone (Ironde- 
quoit). only 15 feet thick. Opposite the American Falls a thin layer of hard 
sandstone (Thorold) is exposed about 15 feet beneath this limestone. Then 
follows relatively soft shaly sandstone of the Albion formation for 50 or 60 feet 
below the surface of the pool, beneath which is another sandstone layer (Whirl- 
pool sandstone), 25 feet thick. Beneath this in turn is 300 feet or more of soft 
red shale (Qneenston), extending below the bottom of the pool. Thus a massive 

1 See also supplementary report on p. 281. 



262 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

layer of hard compact limestone overlies several hundred feet of relatively 
soft shales containing a few thin layers of hard rock. 

The resistance to stream erosion of the massive layer at the top is much 
greater than that of any of the layers beneath it. The thin, hard beds in the 
underlying shales are at a decided disadvantage in resisting the work of the 
cataract, for the water only glides over the massive top beds, but strikes with 
tremendous force on the thinner beds 150 to 200 feet below wherever they 
become exposed. Direct impact of the falling water on the rocks above the 
level of the pool is not the chief process' in gorge making, however ; in fact, it 
counts for very little. By far the most important factor is the scouring of the 
bottom and sides of the pool at the base of the Falls, where the mass of falling 
water strikes. The shale is gradually worn away by the impact of the water 
alone, but more efficient tools are continually supplied. By the wearing away 
of the soft shale the hard layers are undermined and blocks and fragments 
of limestone and sandstone fall into the pool, where the tremendous turbulence 
of the water spins them round and round after the manner of pestle stones in 
the making of potholes. (PI. No. 17.) At first the blocks are angular, but 
even after they become rounded and although they are themselves worn away 
in the process, they wear the softer rock away more rapidly, hence the depth 
of the pool is greater than the height of the Falls. 

Thus the brink of the cataract is always an overhanging ledge projecting 
beyond the face of the supporting rock wall. Whenever a block falls from the 
brink it contributes to the lengthening of the gorge at the top, and at the same 
time supplies a new tool for lengthening it at the bottom. With each fall of 
rock from' the brink the supporting wall behind the Falls is attacked with 
renewed vigor and! the lengthening of the gorge goes on for a time at a slightly 
faster rate. This process has resulted in the making of the whole Gorge from 
Lewiston to the Horseshoe Falls, except the basin of the Whirlpool, which is 
older than the rest of the Gorge. 

More than a dozen surveys of the crest line of the Falls have been 
made during the last century and a half, and are available for de- 
termining the rate of recession of the Horseshoe Falls. Five of the 
most valuable of these are shown on plate No. 18. 

The first is from a plane table survey of the Niagara River made 
under the direction of Capt. John Montresor, Royal Engineers, in 
1764. The original map is in the British Museum. The crest line on 
plate No. 18 is taken from a reproduction of Montresor's crest line in 
The Falls of Niagara, published by the Canadian Department of 
Mines in 1907. This original map was on a small scale and shows 
minor inaccuracies of detail, nevertheless it is of great value in 
illustrating the recession of the Falls, as it is by far the oldest survey 
we possess. 

The second line on the plate is from a map made by James Hall in 
1842. This was the first careful trigonometric survey of the crest 
line made especially to establish a basis for measuring the recession 
of the Falls. This appears to have been careful and well-executed 
work. A series of stone monuments were left to which all subsequent 
surveys have been tied. This line was also taken from a reproduc- 
tion in " The Falls of Niagara." 

The next survey made was that of the United States Lake Survey 
in 1875. This was a good piece of work. The third line on plate 
No. 18 shows the crest line determined by this survey reproduced 
from the original manuscript map. During the next 30 years four 
or five surveys were made. These have not been reproduced as they 
would confuse the map with too many lines without adding ma- 
terially to the information conveyed. 

The fourth line shown represents another survey executed by the 
United States Lake Survey in 1906. This was also taken from the 
original manuscript map. The fifth line is a survey made for the 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 263 

present investigation. The engineers who performed the field work 
were Lake Survey employees, and the method used and results ob- 
tained were strictly comparable with those of the earlier surveys of 
that organization. This survey was made in the fall of 1917. 

While these last four lines show certain minor discrepancies, 
notably in the vicinity of the international boundary line, they give 
a very satisfactory record of the rate of recession of the Horseshoe 
Falls. The inconsistencies are chiefly between Hall's line of 1842 and 
the three lines surveyed under the direction of the corps of engi- 
neers. The latter agree very well among themselves. Montressor's 
line was much less carefully surveyed, and not being referred to any 
permanent monuments or landmarks it is not so well located on the 
sheet. It may very likely be in error as much as 50 feet at any point, 
and possibly more than twice that amount in some places. Its early 
date, however, gives it great value, as it is the best basis we have for 
computing the rate of recession in earlier years. 

The exact measure to be used in expressing the rate of recession is 
a thing somewhat different to determine. In preparing Table No. 
26 the following method was used : A line, m-n, was drawn from the 
east end of Montressor's crest line on Goat Island through the south- 
west corner of the Ontario Power Co.'s power house to the west edge 
of the Gorge. The length of this line, 1,200 feet, was taken as the 
ultimate width of the Gorge, which the Falls is excavating. This 
agrees with the width adopted by Spencer (Falls of Niagara, p. 28) 
based on two other measurements. Then the increase in the area 
bounded by this line and the crest line divided by 1,200 is the average 
amount by which the Gorge has been lengthened in any given time. 
Dividing this by the length of time in years gives the average rate 
of recession. The maximum recession between any two successive 
lines was formed by measuring the length of the longest line that 
could be drawn between them as nearly as possible perpendicular to 
each. The points selected for the ends of these lines are indicated on 
the map by the lower case letters a, b, c, etc. Dividing their lengths 
by the elapsed time gives the maximum rate of recession. 

Table No. 26. — Rate of recession of Horshoe Falls. 





Elapsed 
years. 


Area of 
recession. 


Mean 
rate of 
reces- 
sion. 


Mean 
reces- 
sion. 


Mean 
rate of 
reces- 
sion. 


Line of 
maxi- 
mum 
reces- 
sion. 


Maxi- 
mum 
reces- 
sion. 


Rate of 
maxi- 
mum 
reces- 
sion. 


From 1764 to 1842 


78 
33 
31 
11 


Square 

feet. 
380,000 
202,000 
124, 000 

53,000 


Square 
feet per 
' year. 
4,870 
6,120 
4,000 
4,820 


Feet. 

317 

169 

103 

44 


Feet 

per 

year. 

9 4.1 
5.1 
3.3 
4.0 


a-b 

c-d 

e-f 

g-h 


Feet. 

470 

160 

180 

75 


Feet 
per 
year. 
6 


From 1842 to 1875 


4.8 


From 1875 to 1906 


5.8 


From 1906 to 1917 


6.8 






Total from 1764 to 1917 


153 


759,000 


4,960 


633 


4.1 


a-k 


775 


5.1 



This table indicates that for the last century and a half the apex 
of the horseshoe has been cutting back at an average rate of about 
5 feet per year, while, if it be considered that the cataract is exca- 
vating a gorge 1.200 feet wide, the average progress was at the rate 



264 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

of about 4 feet per year. As a matter of fact, it appears that the 
falls are now forming a gorge which will run to the southeast 
rather than southwest as before, and that this new gorge will be 
narrower than the old. The rate of recession in the new narrower 
gorge is faster than in the old, and the rate appears to be increasing 
in spite of the diversion of water for power development. The area 
excavated per year has not changed much, but in the narrower gorge 
it results in a greater lineal recession. 

The result of this recession into a deep notch is a gradual con- 
centration of flow into the center of the crest and a corresponding 
diminishing of the flow over the ends. The Lake Survey's gauge 
at the International Railway Co. intake indicates that the recession 
of the falls has reduced the depth at this point quite a bit since 
1906. The amount of this lowering is difficult to determine, as the 
problem is complicated by a simultaneous lowering due to the in- 
creased diversion by the power companies. Unpublished reports 
of the Lake Survey state that the elevation at this gauge was re- 
duced 1.78 feet between 1906 and 1912. Of this 0.38 was explained 
by the effect of increasing diversion and certain other artificial 
changes in the river, leaving 1.40 feet lowering due to the recession 
of the falls in six years. This appears to show that the depth of 
water at the ends of the crest line is being decreased by a greater 
concentration at the center. 

There is no direct evidence of the reduction in the flow at the 
Goat Island end of the falls, although such a reduction has un- 
doubtedly occurred. At the Canadian end, however, a real record 
is preserved. In 1875 there was a flow over the crest line as far 
north as the outfall of the Canadian Niagara Power Co.'s tunnel. 
As a result of the recession of the apex of the Horseshoe Falls the 
flow over this part of the crest became very thin and a great deal 
of bare rock was exposed. Soon after the Queen Victoria Niagara 
Falls Park Commission was appointed in 1887 they took measures 
to remedy this unsightly condition by filling in the land along this 
end of the crest and building a retaining wall. Ultimately about 
415 feet of the crest has been walled up. The fact that this baring* 
of the Canadian end of the Horseshoe Falls was due to natural 
causes and not to the diversion of the power companies should be 
emphasized, as the contrary statement has often been made. The 
work had been undertaken and more than one-third completed in 
1895 when the total diversion for power did not exceed the incon- 
siderable amount of 2,000 cubic feet per second or 1 per cent of the 
river flow. It was completed before the second of the five large 
stations began using water. There can be no question whatever 
but that it was due to the recession of the falls and aggravated by 
the period of deficient rainfall which occurred about 1890. The 
building of the wall was not made necessary by the construction 
of the power plants and has been of no advantage to any of them. 

As stated above, the result of the recession now occurring is to with- 
draw water from the ends of the Falls and concentrate it at the center. 
The ends are the parts that are conspicuously visible to spectators. 
The notch is quite invisible from the most frequented viewpoints and 
can not be seen to any advantage from any point. Thus the recession 
is causing a decided decrease in the beauty of the Horseshoe Falls. 
Also the greater concentration of the flow into the central notch causes 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM ORE AT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 265 

a thickening of the darkening curtain of mist and further obscures 
the spectacle. This effect is cumulative. Increased erosion in the notch 
causes concentration of flow there; concentration of the flow in the 
notch increases the erosion there. A vicious cycle is thus established 
which is tending to the rapid destruction of the Horseshoe Falls as 
we now know it. It may be confidently predicted that if nothing is 
done to check this process the not very distant future will see the 
whole Terrapin Point shelf left bare to a point several hundred feet 
south of where it crosses the boundary line and a similar though 
smaller effect on the Canadian side. A narrowed cataract not much 
more than a thousand feet in length will plunge into the end of a 
gorge correspondingly contracted ; the whole will be shrouded in dense 
mist and bordered on each side by the dark and fissured bed of the 
present river. If the present rate of recession of the apex continues 
for a hundred years the International Railway Co.'s power plant 
would probably be left high and dry and the Canadian Niagara would 
be in serious difficulties. In four or five centuries the first cascade 
would be reached and the drying up of the American Falls would 
commence, two of the power houses would be shut down and all 
the others would be affected. Once the first cascade is crossed the 
formation of the rocks and channels is such that the lowering of the 
Chippewa- Grass Island Pool will be very rapid. 

These evils may seem a long time in the future, but it must be re- 
membered that they are based on a recession of the apex at the present 
rate of 6 feet per annum. The rate has been increasing for the past 
40 years, and there is reason to believe that it will continue to increase 
as the flow becomes more and more concentrated. The recession has 
already done serious scenic damage at the Canadian end, also at Ter- 
rapin Point, and within a generation it may be expected that the 
visible damage at the latter point will be very great indeed. 

The recession of the American Falls is a matter of very secondary 
importance and no new survey of the American crest line was at- 
tempted for this investigation. The conclusions to be shown from 
the best data available are well summarized in the following extract 
from the United States Geological Survey's Niagara Folio, page 23 : 

RECESSION OF THE AMERICAN I ALLS. 

Most of the surveys of the Falls have included a determination of the crest 
line of the American Falls, but in the survey of 1911 (by the United States Geo- 
logical Survey) that determination was omitted, and the survey by the United 
States Lake Survey in 1906 is therefore the latest of that fall. Attempts nave 
been made to compute its rate of recession, but with one exception the differences 
between the successive crest lines are so slight that it seems doubtful whether 
they are greater than the probable range of error. Indeed, the map on which 
the several lines are plotted seems to indicate errors of that magnitude in cer- 
tain places where a later line projects farther out than an earlier one. Hall's 
map of 1842 shows a great salient at the north side of the American Falls tbat 
projects about 100 feet beyond the line shown by all the later surveys. Here, 
again, Mr. Gilbert made effective use of a camera lucia sketch which Basil 
Hall made of this fall in 1827, and showed conclusively that the large salient 
shown on Hall's map is an error. 

Using the crest line of Hall's map, Spencer calculated the rate of recession 
to be 0.6 foot a year. After making the correction on Hall's map, Gilbert cal- 
culated that the rate was probably as small as 0.2 foot a year. But even that 
rate may be much too large. The deepest water passing over the American 
Falls is only 3.5 feet deep, and the average is less than 1.5 feet. 



266 DIVEKSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The crest line is nearly 1,000 feet long, and is an almost even continuation 
of the cliff line on either side of it. In fact, the deepest water on this fall 
passes over the ledge near Prospect Point, a part of which protrudes slightly 
beyond the general cliff line. The fall is nearly 168 feet high, but the water 
strikes upon great blocks and bowlders which rest, in part, upon limestone 
ledges of the Clinton formation. The blocks are simply the coarser materials 
of the talus. In all the time that it has existed — probably 600 to 800 years — 
the fall has not been able to remove the blocks or to make a measurable begin- 
ning of a gorge. It has removed the fine material of the talus and has prob- 
ably steepened the base of the cliff somewhat, but has done little more. In 
short, it is doubtful whether the crest line of the American Falls has receded 
more than may be fairly ascribed to normal cliff recession due to weathering. 
If the slight reentrant in the central part of the crest line is due to recession 
produced by the fall, it must be a very old feature, for the water sheet is now 
thinner there than north of it. Moreover, the crest lines, as mapped by the sev- 
eral surveys, are more nearly in agreement in this reentrant than in most other 
places, and the reentrant is no greater than many others along the cliff where 
no side fall ever existed. 

It would appear from this that the American Falls shares none of 
the suicidal tendencies of its larger neighbor and, as far as the oper- 
ation of natural forces goes, it is destined to remain in practically 
its present condition for half a thousand years or so, when its waters 
will be drained away by the encroachment of the receding Horse- 
shoe Falls upon the waters of the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool. 
The utmost change that it might experience would be the loss of the 
Luna Falls, due to the recession of the Main Falls beyond the head 
of Luna Island, and this might not have occurred in the time al- 
lowed. 

Effect of present diversion. — The various power companies at Ni r 
agara are now diverting approximately 50,000 cubic feet per second 
around the Falls and into the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool. In addition, 
the New York State Barge Canal, the Welland Canal, and the Chi- 
cago Drainage Canal are taking some 12,000 or 13,000 cubic feet per 
second which would otherwise flow over the Falls and through the 
gorge. In the near future, when the New Welland Canal is put in 
operation and the plants now under construction at the Falls are fin- 
ished, the total diversion affecting the Falls will be^ very nearly 
70,000 cubic feet per second. Has the existing diversion of 62,000 
from the Falls and 12,000 from the gorge done real and perceptible 
injury to the scenic beauty of the Falls and rapids? This question 
of the amount of damage that has resulted from existing diversions 
has been the center of much controversy, often generating more heat 
than light. It is worth while, therefore, to analyze the problem 
which it presents and expose some of the fallacies that have often 
been repeated. 

The real crux of the difficulty lies in the fact that increase in di- 
version has been gradual and continuous, and the change in the ap- 
pearance of the Falls has been correspondingly so. At the same 
time, large oscillating changes in the appearance are continually oc- 
curring, due to the varying stage of Lake Erie. Attempts to esti- 
mate the change by personal observation are therefore of little value. 
Even if the uninformed observer can make a successful mental com- 
parison between what he sees to-day and his memory of what he saw 
30 years ago, he is quite unable to tell how much of the change is the 
effect of diversions and how much is due to a difference in the stage 
of Lake Erie. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 267 

It frequently happens that some "distinguished man whose pro- 
nouncements bear weight with the public visits Niagara and after- 
wards tells the reporters that he is certain that the Falls are to-day 
as great and glorious a spectacle as ever; he is distinctly impressed 
with the fact that they have not been diminished a particle since he 
first saw them when on his honeymoon in 1889. Or his statement 
may be that the vandalism of the power companies is ruining the 
Falls; he recalls clearly that in his boyhood days they were incom- 
parably finer than at present. For the reasons given above these im- 
pressions are of no value whatever, nevertheless they are often seized 
upon and given wide publicity by those whose side in the contro- 
versy they favor. 

The error which fluctuations in stage introduce into individual 
judgment of the scenic changes caused by the diversions tends to be 
usually in one direction ; the change of stage diminishes the effect of 
the diversion more often than it exaggerates it. Diversion on a large 
scale began in 1895 ; the years immediately preceding this date are 
naturally selected as a basis of comparison with present conditions. 
Unfortunately the years from 1890 to 1895 are notable for having 
been years of very low water on all the lakes. The mean stage of 
Lake Erie for the year 1895 itself is the lowest recorded in 60 years. 
On the contrary, during the period from 1913 to 1918 the stage of 
Lake Erie has been unusually high, the year 1913 being the highest 
recorded since 1890. These high and low stages were due to various 
meteorological and other conditions entirely independent of any- 
thing occurring at Niagara Falls. As a result of these conditions a 
comparison of the appearance of the Falls before and after the di- 
versions took place is very likely to be a comparison of the Falls with 
almost no diversion and a low stage of Lake Erie against the Falls 
with large diversions and a high stage of the lake. The effect of 
the higher stage is the opposite of the effect of the larger diversion 
and tends to conceal the latter. 

Despite the difficulties it is quite possible to obtain ample and de- 
cisive evidence of the effect of diversions upon the beauty of the 
Falls. The very changes in stage which deprive ordinary observa- 
tions of their value can be made the instrument of a very exact solu- 
tion of the problem. The effect of changing the flow over the Falls 
by 50,000 cubic feet per second is much the same whether this change 
was due to the operation of power companies or to the oscillations of 
Lake Erie. If a man should view the Falls daily for two or three 
years, taking special note of conditions during heavy gales, he would 
see that the appearance varied widely from time to time. The high- 
est stages that he saw would represent very fairly what conditions 
would be on average days if there had been no diversions and the 
difference between what he saw on average days and what he saw on 
the days of highest stage would be a pretty good measure of the 
effect of the diversion upon the scenic beauty of the Falls. Similarly, 
the difference in appearance on average days and on days of ex- 
tremely low water would give him a measure of the same thing at 
lower stages. 

By substituting the lens of the photographic camera for the eye 
of a human observer we are able to present a graphic and indisput- 
able record of the facts. It is to be regretted that during the period 
of six weeks during which the photographer was prepared to take 



268 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

these pictures, no very low stage occurred in weather which permit- 
ted photographs to be taken. However, a fairly satisfactory series 
at high and medium stages was obtained. These pictures are shown 
on photographs Nos. 74 to 127 and have already been described. 
Each picture showing the Falls or rapids above the Falls is marked 
with the approximate flow of water over the Falls in cubic feet per 
second. In these the effect of certain changes in discharge can be 
directly observed and the effect of other changes can be easily esti- 
mated. 

In the American and Canadian Rapids above the Falls the pictures 
show the effects of a change of 85,000 cubic feet per second. These 
are noticeable, although not of great importance. The present di- 
versions, of course, have an effect about three'-quarters as great as 
this. 

At the American Falls photographs Nos. 83 and 84 show the effect 
of a change of 65,000 approximately equal to the present total di- 
versions, on the view from the Canadian side. Photographs Nos. 88 
and 89 show views from Goat Island with a difference of 90,000. 
The better photographic conditions in the low-stage pictures tend to 
obscure the result, but a careful study will show real differences in 
favor of the high stage, particularly the greater depth of water and 
smoother curve over the crest. 

The effect on the Horseshoe Falls is the most striking. This falls 
is shown from five different viewpoints in photographs Nos. 91 to 
104, and in each the superiority of the pictures with the larger 
flows is incontestable. Nos. 98 and 99 show excellently the effect on 
the Goat Island end of the Horseshoe of a reduction of 65,000. This 
is a real measure of the results of the present diversions on this end 
of the -falls. In the face of these photographs any contention that 
the beauty of the cataract has not been seriously affected becomes 
supremely ridiculous. Photographs Nos. 100 and 101, 103 and 104, 
especially the latter pair, show the result of slightly greater changes 
at the same place but taken from other viewpoints. Bear in mind 
that an effect equal to three-quarters of the difference between 103 
and 104 has already taken place. Nos. 95 and 96 show the Canadian 
end of the Horseshoe with a flow of 165,000 and 225,000, respectively, 
a difference of 60,000 cubic feet per second. Again the proof of real 
damage already done is incontestable. No. 95 was taken at 3.20 
p. m. November 7, 1917. If no water had ever been diverted from 
the Niagara River a picture taken on that day and hour would have 
been hardly distinguishable from photograph No. 96. These bare 
ledges of unsightly rock would have been covered with a flood of 
rushing water and the thin and broken streams trickling over the 
edge of the cliff would have given place to a leaping cataract but 
little inferior to that shown in photograph No. 96. 

In the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool, the Gorge, and the Whirlpool the 
present diversion is only 12,000 cubic feet per second. A number of 
the photographs show the result of such diversions. On the whole 
the rapids make a finer showing with this water diverted than they 
did before. The difference, however, is very slight. 

To sum up, the present diversions have done a slight amount of 
damage to the rapids above the falls and a somewhat greater amount 
to the American Falls. Both ends of the Horseshoe Falls have been 



DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 269 

seriously injured and this injury will be increased by any further 
diversions. The diversions have had very little effect on the lower 
river and this mostly of a favorable nature. The damage that has 
been done should be repaired if possible and no further diversions 
should be permitted unless steps are taken to neutralize the damage 
that they will do. 

Proposed remedial measures. — It has been shown that the scenic 
beauty of Niagara Falls has been appreciably damaged both by the 
recent recession of the apex of the Horseshoe Falls and by the di- 
version of water for power and for other purposes. The recession 
of the apex is progressing at an increasing rate and further power 
diversions are urgently desired and would be of great value to this 
country and to Canada. On the other hand the destructions or serious 
impairment of the beauty of this famous cataract will not be tol- 
erated by the people of the United States and would provoke the 
expostulations of the whole civilized world. Under these conditions 
the question naturally arises, can not something be done which will 
repair the damage already done, prevent the self-destruction of the 
Horseshoe, and allow increased diversions without noticeable damage ? 

Such a possibility was seen as long ago as 1906 and was pointed 
out in a report to the Chief of Engineers in 1908, as follows: 

* * * the damage already done, and that which may be anticipated from 
further diversions * * *, may be largely, if not entirely remedied by a sub- 
merged dam placed in the bed of the river immediately above the Horseshoe 
Falls. The dam, if properly planned, would serve to change the direction of 
flow, so as to increase the streams that feed the falls at Terrapin Point and at 
the Canadian shore. The decrease in the mighty volume that overflows the 
center or apex of the Horseshoe would not be noticeable. * * * A very direct 
result of the construction of this submerged dam would be a dimunition in the 
rate of recession of the apex of the Horseshoe. This in itself is extremely de- 
sirable. (S. Doc. No. 105, 62d Cong. 1st sess. p. 15.) 

The underlying principle of the design of such Avorks is pointed 
out by the fact that while the American Falls carries but one-six- 
teenth of the flow over the Falls, it probably furnishes one-half of 
the spectacle. The American Falls is easily approached from either 
end and from below and a fine view of its full face is obtained from 
the opposite side of the Gorge. On the other hand, the approachable 
ends of the Horseshoe are greatly inferior to the American Falls, 
while the great fall of water into the notch can not be observed from 
any point. As matters now stand, there flows over the central 600 
feet of the Horseshoe Falls a volume of approximately 80,000 cubic 
feet per second, which not only is entirely wasted in that it creates 
neither scenery nor power but which is actually a detriment in that 
it is the cause of the destructive erosion described above. 

Photographs Nos. 72 and 73 are pictures taken with the intent of 
showing the whole Falls at their best. Note in each instance the 
marked superiority of the American Falls. The cloud of mist which 
shuts out so much of the Horseshoe is a feature which is always 
present. 

The average flow over the American Falls is about 9 cubic feet per 
second over each linear foot of crest. This produces a waterfall 
whose beauty and grandeur is admittedly unsurpassed. Over the 
Horseshoe the average flow per foot is about 57 cubic feet per second 
over each linear foot of crest, or more than six times as much as the 



270 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

American, but it is unevenly distributed. The whole eastern end of 
the crest, out as far as a point 200 feet beyond where the crest crosses 
the international boundary, has a mean flow of 4 cubic feet per foot, 
or less than half as much as the American Falls; in much of the 
length the intensity of flow is much less than this. While the most 
conspicuous part of the crest has this meager flow, in the apex of the 
notch, hidden from view by walls of rock and curtains of water and 
mist, there is a flow of perhaps 200 cubic feet per second over each 
foot of crest, or twenty-two times as much as at the American Falls. 

If 125,000 cubic feet per second out of the 150,000 usually flowing 
over the Horseshoe Falls were diverted for power development, and 
the remaining 25,000 were distributed uniformly over the 2,600 feet 
of crest line the whole length of the Horseshoe would have an ap- 
pearance similar to that which the American Falls now has. The 
cloud of mist would be greatly reduced and much more of the Horse- 
shoe would be visible. A glance at photographs Nos. 72 and 73 will 
show how much the effect of the whole would be enhanced. At the 
same time, the recession of the Falls would be very greatly reduced. 
Ultimately the rate of recession would not be much greater than that 
of the American Falls. 

For various reasons so great a diversion as 125,000 is neither pos- 
sible nor desirable, but by action along the lines indicated it will 
be possible to increase the beauty of the Horseshoe Falls, reduce the 
cloud of mist, check the recession which is now destroying the Falls r 
and develop much more power than is now generated. At the same 
time the flow over the American Falls could be somewhat increased 
and conditions there restored to what they were in 1890. The ques- 
tions of the allowable diversion and of the design of the remedial 
works are taken up in subsequent sections of this report. 

2. ALLOWABLE DIVERSIONS AROUND THE FALLS. 

Flow required for sluicing ice. — In the winter and early spring 
large amounts of ice come down the Magara River and go over the 
Falls. It is essential that any scheme shall maintain a sufficient flow 
over the Falls to carry this ice and prevent the formation of ice jams 
in the rapids above the Falls. Such ice jams might cause serious 
damage by floods and by cutting off the water supply to some of the 
power houses. A consideration of ice conditions at the American 
Falls will indicate how much water is needed for this purpose. 

On one or two occasions, notably in February, 1909, the American 
channel has been blocked by ice. This has occurred only on days of 
extremely low flow. At ordinary stages the American channel has 
always been able to carry away its share of the ice, even in the record- 
breaking winter of 1917-18. The ordinary flow may be taken at 
9,000 cubic feet per second, although during many severe winters the 
channel has been kept open by a smaller average flow than this. The 
crest line of the Falls is about 1,000 feet long and the width of the 
channel in its widest and shallowest part is about the same if the 
width of the islands be deducted. That is to say, a flow of 9 cubic 
feet per second for each foot of width has always been sufficient to 
keep this channel open. Allowing the same proportion to the 3,300- 
foot Canadian channel would give a flow of 30,000 cubic feet per 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 271 

second needed to keep this channel open. Of course, conditions are 
not the same in the two channels. It would seem that in the American 
channel with so many islands they would be more severe. However, 
to be decidedly on the safe side, we will increase the amount by half 
and assume that a minimum daily mean flow of 45,000 cubic feet per 
second must be retained in the Canadian channel for sluicing ice. 

The American Falls has been little affected by the existing diver- 
sions. Making the best possible use of the scanty observations avail- 
able it appears that its mean flow under natural conditions was about 
11,000 cubic feet per second. The present power diversions have 
reduced this to about 9,000 cubic feet. The effect of this reduction 
upon the appearance of the Falls has been but slight. With a diver- 
sion of 80,000 cubic feet per second, however, unless some remedial 
action is taken, the flow would probably be reduced to 4,000 or 5,000 
cubic feet per second, which would ruin both the Falls and the rapids 
above it. It will not be a difficult matter to deepen the channel lead- 
ing from Port Day to the first cascade of the American rapids and 
restore a flow of 11,000 or 12,000 cubic feet in spite of the great 
diversion. The flow at the lowest daily mean stage would be about 
4,500 cubic feet. This is at least as great as the lowest daily mean 
flow of the past, and conditions of ice sluicing would be as well 
satisfied as they are noAV. 

Minimum flow of river. — The lowest daily mean flow recorded 
since the installation of the Buffalo gauge was 138,000 cubic feet per 
second, which occurred on February 1, 1915. The next lowest was 
148,000 on March 19, 1901. The flow was 160,000 or less on 15 davs. 
One of these was in April, two were in March, and all the rest were in 
January, February, or December. On each day there was a moderate 
to high easterly or northwesterly wind and commonly rain or snow 
was falling. In other words, these low stages occur on days when 
sight-seeing is a disagreeable task and usually at a time of year when 
the various beautiful ice effects at the Falls do a great deal to afford a 
sort of scenic compensation for a temporary reduction in the flow over 
the crest. 

The extreme minimum flows are due to the effects of easterly gales 
on Lake Erie. These extreme low stages of the Buffalo gauge last 
but a few minutes and do not produce their full effect in diminishing 
the flow over the Falls. The minimum stage recorded by the Buffalo 
gauge was 567.38, on February 1, 1915, at 6.54 p. m. If the discharge 
formula be applied to this reading, it gives a value of Q=106,000 
cubic feet per second. The actual flow probably never fell below 
110,000 or 115,000 cubic feet per second. 

On the day when these minimum flows occurred the total diversion 
by the Erie, Welland, and Chicago Canals probably did not fall as 
much as 5,000 cubic feet per second below the amount now being 
taken at these places. Allowing for a possible increase in the diver- 
sions the following assumptions will be made for use in deciding on 
future limits of diversion : 

1. The scenic beauties of the falls must be properly maintained 
when the total river flow is reduced to 150,000 cubic feet per second. 
The daily mean flow will be less than this on a few very rare occa- 
sions, but these will usually be on days of bad weather in the winter 
months. 



272 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKEb AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

2. The ice-sluicing powers of the cataract must be preserved when 
the total river flow is reduced to a daily mean of 130,000 cubic feet 
per second. 

3. Rare and brief reductions of flow may occur down to as little as 
100,000 cubic feet per second. These will last but a few hours and 
need not be much regarded. If they should threaten to cause any 
serious trouble, it should be possible to shut off part of the power 
diversion for a few hours. 

Permissible diversions. — The minimum requirement for ice sluic- 
ing adopted above was 45,000 cubic feet per second for the Horseshoe 
Falls and 4,500 for the American, a total, in round numbers, of 
50,000 cubic feet per second; 130,000 cubic feet per second has been 
adopted as the lowest probable daily mean flow for which full ice- 
sluicing capacity must be maintained. The difference between these 
two quantities, or 80,000 cubic feet per second, is the amount which 
may be diverted. Permits for diverting water in excess of that now 
being used should contain a clause authorizing the Government's 
representatives at the Falls to order an immediate reduction of load 
by 70 per cent for a period not to exceed six consecutive hours when- 
ever the condition of the river makes it advisable, but not oftener 
than four times per year. Such a clause, if the powers it confers be 
intelligently handled, would prevent any trouble from temporary 
extreme low water. It probably would not be necessary to use these 
powers except at intervals of several years. 

It must be thoroughly understood that the allowing of any such 
diversion as 80,000 cubic feet per second is absolutely contingent upon 
the construction of remedial works. 

Use of extra water available at higher stages. — If remedial works 
are constructed and 80,000 cubic feet per second are diverted the ap- 
pearance of the Falls will be satisfactory on the days of minimum 
flow ; that is, days when the mean flow of the river is 130,000 cubic 
feet per second. The gauge records show that on 997 days out of 
every 1,000 the mean flow exceeds 160,000 cubic feet per second, and 
days when the flow is reduced to 180,000 are rare. On the other 
hand, flows as great as 230,000 or 240,000 cubic feet per second are 
not uncommon, and flows in excess of 300,000 have been recorded. 
After the remedial works are built and the 80,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond diverted, the excess of river flow above 180,000 cubic feet per 
second contributes little or nothing to the scenic beauty of the Falls 
while it adds materially to the destructive erosion. 

In view of these facts it appears that further diversion for power 
development may be permissible under certain limitations. After 
the full amount of 80,000 cubic feet per second has been used and 
marketed, if careful observation indicates that no harmful results 
will follow, plants might be installed to divert the excess above 
180,000 cubic feet per second of total river discharge. These plants 
would be subject to occasional shutdowns due to low stage, and would 
have to be provided with a steam station to serve as a "stand-by," 
or else develop industries in which occasional shutdowns could be 
tolerated. These are handicaps to which the majority of existing 
hydraulic plants in this country are subject. 

Final result. — When these diversions have been made and the re- 
medial works constructed, the American Rapids and Falls will be 
restored to a condition comparable to that of 1890, or even a little 




30AT ISLAf^ 
aphs Nos. 91 




<$• 




Photograph No. 139.— VIEW FROM GOAT ISLAND. 

Looking toward the American shore before the establishment of the Niagara Reservation, 
July 15, 1885, showing paper mill on Bath, now Green Island. 




Photograph No. 139.— VIEW' FROM SAME VANTAGE POINT ON GOAT ISLAND. 

Showing conditions as they are to-day. 







^ 



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NIAGARA FALLS 




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Photograph No. 140.— MAP OF NIAGARA FALLS, N. Y., IN 1853. 
Showing proposed Hydraulic Canal. 






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DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER,. 273 

better, both at mean stage and at low water. The upper part of the 
Horseshoe Rapids will be considerably damaged by the exposure of 
bare spots, especially at low stage. It is quite possible that the layer 
of these might be transformed into wooded islands, such as are now 
an attractive feature of the American Rapids. Also, at the low stage 
caused by these diversions, new cascades and breakers will probably 
be formed at points where the water is now fairly smooth. The 
lower part of the Horseshoe Rapids will be improved by having a 
greater depth on the shoals in the northwest corner and above Ter- 
rapin Point and by the creation of a new cascade on a grand scale 
at the site of the submerged dam. 

The beauty of the Horseshoe Falls, which has been injured by the 
power diversions and by the recession of the Falls, will be restored 
and added to until the Falls takes on an aspect far more grand than 
it has ever had before. At mean stage its discharge will be from 
40 to 45 cubic feet per second over each lineal foot of crest, or more 
than five times as much as the American Falls now has. This condi- 
tion will obtain along the whole crest of the Falls, including Terra- 
pin Point and the Canadian end. Each of these places will become 
a new and glorified " Prospect Point," with a great cataract leaping 
from the cliff at the spectators' very feet, but with five times the in- 
tensity of the Falls at Prospect Point. The long salient crest line 
near Terrapin Point, which the geologists call the " Goat Island 
Shelf," will be the site of Falls as accessible and conspicuous as the 
American Falls and five times as voluminous, while the now invisible 
sides of the notch will have similar falls, and they will be visible 
much of the time because the mist formation will be greatly reduced. 
The suicidal recession of the Horseshoe Falls will be checked and re- 
duced to perhaps a tenth of its former value. 

On days of ordinary low flow the discharge of the Horseshoe Falls 
per foot of crest will be about 30 cubic feet per second. This will 
give the ends of the Falls on days when their natural appearance 
would, without these works, be much worse than is shown on pho- 
tographs Nos. 91, 95, and 97, an intensity of flow three times as 
great as the American Falls usually has. 

The net result. would be that while some minor damage would be 
done to the Horseshoe Rapids, the Falls, taken as a whole, would be 
vastly improved, the suicidal recession of the Horseshoe would be 
checked, and the amount of valuable electric power available would 
be greatly increased. 

3. REMEDIAL WORKS. 

Introduction. — The rapids above the Horseshoe Falls are so wide, 
their volume of flow is so large, and the velocity of the water is so 
great that at first glance the idea of building a dam or other works 
in the middle of them seems impossible and absurd. After careful 
study, however, it is found that the difficulties are not as great as 
they appear. Over a very large part of their area the rapids are 
comparatively shallow, and in many places the velocities are no 
greater than those with which the builders of the headworkers of the 
Ontario Power Co. and Toronto Power Co. have successfully con- 
tended. 

27880—21 is 



274 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES' AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

In 1917 a survey of these rapids was made in connection with the 
present investigation, as already described in Section D. The re- 
sults are shown in plates Nos. 19 and 22. Plate No. 19 shows the 
directions of the current in different parts of the rapids, while plate 
No. 20 shows the velocities. Plate No. 21 shows the depth of water 
at the time of the survey and plate No. 22 gives the elevations of the 
bottom above sea level. The contours on this plate are drawn to a 
vertical interval of 5 feet. The mean discharge of the Niagara River 
on the days of the survey was about 216,000 cubic feet per second, or 
about 5 per cent more than the general mean. The data in the Ameri- 
can Rapids and east of Goat Island on some of these plates is taken 
from the work of the United States Lake Survey in 1907 and 1908. 

As to the accuracy of these maps it may be said that plates Nos. 19 
and 20 are very good. Plate No. 21 is fair. Plate No. 22 is by no 
means as accurate as the others. The elevations shown on it are 
based upon a series of assumptions as to the probable elevation of 
the water surface between the few observed points, and some of the 
assumptions had to be made with very little real evidence as a guide. 
As plate No. 19 shows, there are four areas of considerable size 
through which no floats passed. 

These drawings are ample for giving a general idea of the condi- 
tions involved and for making a tentative design and estimate of 
proposed works for spreading the water from the center to the sides 
of the Horseshoe Falls. Before the final plans are made the power 
diversions should be increased to the full amount contemplated, so 
as to reduce the depths and velocities while work on the remedial 
works is in progress. While the diversion is being increased to this 
point automatic water gauges should be maintained at the six points 
where there have been gauges in the past, and possibly in one or two 
new places. When the diversion is complete more extensive surveys 
should be made. The extremely low stage which will then exist in 
the rapids will enable a much greater degree of accuracy to be ob- 
tained. From the results of this survey hydraulic models could be 
made. The final plans based on the gauge data and later survey 
should be carefully tested on the models before being adopted. 

Conditions governing the design. — A study of the maps brought 
out the following features, all of which have had a considerable in- 
fluence on the project presented : The center of the crest lies in a sort 
of cup into which the rock surface dips from east, west, and south. 
The depth of this hollow was not determined but its lowest point is 
well below elevation 500 and probably below 490. The ends of the 
crest line for 500 feet on the Canadian end and nearly twice as far 
on the Goat Island end are higher, with elevations ranging from 500 
to 506. Upstream from the crest at the Goat Island end is a shoal 
with depths of from 1 to 4 feet extending several hundred feet from 
the island. At the Canadian end the water near the shore is deeper, 
but at a distance of about 300 feet from shore there is a very shallow 
spot, much of which is uncovered at verv low stages. 

As the result of these conditions the water converges into the 
central portion of the crest as is shown very clearly in plate No. 19. 
To show the distribution of velocities and other hydraulic conditions 
along the crest line, and for a hundred feet upstream, the data given 
on plate No. 23 was assembled. A section was taken across the 
four maps from Station W to Station D. The central part of this 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 275 

section followed the curve finally adopted for the center line of the 
remedial weir ; the ends are straight lines. This section was divided 
into 11 panels of approximately equal width, numbered from west 
to east. Through the panel points lines were drawn parallel to the 
current lines of plate No. 19, and it was assumed that the quantity 
of water crossing the section in any panel continued to flow between 
the lines from the ends of that panel until it reached the crest. 
In this way the distribution of flow upon the crest line was approxi- 
mately determined. 

The bottom and water surface profiles and the transverse velocity 
curve were scaled from the maps, also the angle that the current 
lines made with the section. From this data the discharge through 
each panel was completed. The sum of the 11 panel discharges as 
thus computed is 167,800 cubic feet per second. Computing the 
river flow from the mean elevation of the Buffalo gauge and sub- 
tracting the estimated diversions, and flow over the American Falls, 
gives a value of 157,000 cubic feet per second, a difference of only 
7 per cent. This is an excellent check on the general accuracy of 
the float survey. 

The panel discharges were corrected in the ratio of 167,800 to 
157,000 and then divided by the length of crest line that each one 
serves. This gives the discharge per foot of crest at different points. 
As plate No. 23 shows, more than half of the total flow passes 
through panels 7, 8, and 9, and flows over the falls on a crest line only 
420 feet long or one-sixth of the total crest line. 

When the power diversion has been increased to 80,000 cubic feet 
per second and the proposed remedial works are finished the total 
flow over this fall will be reduced from 157,000 to 115,000 and will 
be distributed more uniformly over the crest, the ideal being a uni- 
form flow of 44 cubic feet per second over each foot of crest line. 

In designing the weir it must be kept in mind that part of this 
work must be done in depths as great at 12 or 14 feet and velocities 
as high as 20 or 22 feet per second. The bottom is known to be 
very irregular. When part of it was unwatered by the Toronto 
Power Co.'s cofferdam it was found to consist of solid rock carved 
by the water into great blocks separated by cracks often a food wide 
and several feet deep. Under the existing conditions it will be 
difficult to do much to level the bottom under any proposed con- 
struction and the design should be such that very little preliminary 
leveling is needed. 

Another necessary feature of the design is introduced by the un- 
certainty as to the exact height to which the weir must be built at 
different points. The hydraulic problem involved is so complex 
that the exact height required to produce the desired effect can not 
be computed. An approximate estimate can be made, but the 
height finally adopted must be determined by experiment. 
^ The general scheme adopted was that the high Canadian end of the 
Falls and the shoal south of it should be cut down by excavation in 
the cofferdam ; that the high places near Terrapin Point and to the 
south should be similarly excavated in another cofferdam; that a 
submerged weir, curved in plan, should be built across the central 
part of the rapids a short distance upstream from the "notch" of 
the Horseshoe Falls ; and that the American channel should be given 



276 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

a, flow of 12,000 cubic feet per second by means of a submerged 
compensating dike extending from Goat Island to Chippewa. 

Location. — As stated above, the final location of the weir and of 
the excavations at the ends of the Falls can only be determined after 
the diversions have been made, and the result of new surveys and 
model tests have been studied. The recession of the crest line may 
change conditions decidedly between now and the time when work is 
actually started. In order to get an approximation of the cost of the 
works, however, a location was made as of present date. A small 
model of the rapids in relief Avas constructed from data on plates Nos. 
21 and 22 and carefully studied. Two perliminary locations were 
worked up in considerable detail and finally rejected. The ideas 
finally adopted are shown on plate No. 26. 

The center line of the weir as located is an arc of a circle of 540-foot 
radius; the length is 1,380 feet. The depths and velocities now exist- 
ing at the site of the weir are shown on plate No. 23, where the weir 
covers panels 3 to 9, inclusive. Several points had an influence in de- 
termining this location. Because of the " cupping " of the river bottom 
around the apex of the crest the structure must be close to the crest ; 
otherwise after the water has been spread out to the ends it would be 
again concentrated in the center by the slope of the rock. The " cup- 
ping " also has weight in determining the adoption of the curved, 
rather than the straight form. The curved form is also made neces- 
sary by the requirement that the ends of the weir shall make such an 
angle with the current as to deflect it away from, not toward, the 
center. ^Esthetically, the curved plan is much more desirable. 

The height of the weir at various points can not be computed by 
hydraulic formulas, as the problem is much too complex for analytical 
treatment until much more complete data are available. Before con- 
struction starts a preliminary profile should be adopted, based on ex- 
periments with large models. 

In locating the end excavation the first thing considered was the 
shoal near the west end of the weir. It was obvious that this should be 
removed except that a little of its downstream edge might be left to 
serve as an extension of the weir. It was decided to excavate the area 
marked " L " on Plate No. 26 down to elevation 510. At the west end 
of the crest line the area marked " GFKH " is to be excavated, the 
bottom sloping from elevation 505 along the line GH to 501 at K and 
498 at F. This would serve to give a good depth of water at the ex- 
treme end of the Falls even at low stages. 

At the east end it was determined to cut two channels leading from 
behind the weir to the crest line along the " Goat Island Shelf." These 
are marked " NMRO " and " OSTP " on plate No. 26. The strip of 
rock left behind them will form a sort of irregular cascade over 
which some water may flow from one channel to the other at high arid 
medium stages. Its purpose is to give a more uniform distribution 
of flow on this end of the crest. The bottom of the upper channel 
slopes from elevation 507 at OP to 503 at KQ and is level at this ele- 
vation between there and the crest. The bottom of the lower channel 
slopes from elevation 508 at NO to 506 at M and 503 at K. The crest 
line along here is not touched. 

Of course, these channels are not given a smooth finish, but are pur- 
posely left rough to give a natural appearance to the rapids flowing 
over them. Steps and other obstructions might be left in them. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 277 

It would be desirable if the channels on the east side extended 
farther south at their upstream end. The reason that they are not 
so shown is that just south of NO the swiftest currents in the whole 
rapids are found and it wasi thought undesirable to extend the 
cofferdam any further in this direction. If it is found possible, 
without undue expense, to build this cofferdam farther south than the 
position shown on the map, it would be well to extend these channels. 

Plate No. 27 shows bottom and water surface profiles, transverse 
velocity curve and other hydraulic data at mean stage after the con- 
struction of the proposed works. The section is from Station W to 
the weir, along the weir, and then to Station D. This is the same 
section as is shown in plate No. 23, and plates Nos. 23 and 27 should 
be compared to show the results of the proposed works. This plate 
makes no pretensions to accuracy but is based on the best data and 
engineering judgment available. The required height of the weir at 
each point and the height to which the water will rise behind it can 
only be determined by trial. The high point in the water surface 
profile near panel 8 is due to the very high velocity which will still 
exist upstream from this point, which, being checked by the weir, 
raises the elevation of the water surface according to the well-known 
pitot tube law. The smaller rise in panels 3 and 4 is due to a similar 
cause. Of course, no such perfect uniformity of flow over the crest 
of the Falls as this plate shows can be obtained. The data on the 
plate gives the ideal results desired ; in practice they can be but ap- 
proximately realized. 

Work in the American Channel. — Before the power diversions 
began the mean flow in the American Channel was a little more than 
11,000 cubic feet per second. The present diversions have reduced 
this to about 9,000 with a very slight diminution of the beauty of 
the American Falls. If the diversion be increased to 80,000 cubic 
feet per second, and this all diverted above the first cascade, the flow 
in this channel will be reduced to but little more than 4,000 cubic 
feet per second, unless some remedy be provided. With a mean 
flow as small as this, the appearance of the Falls would be very 
greatly damaged, at mean stage and at low stage the Falls avouIc! be 
nearly dry. 

In Section G-3 of this report is outlined a plan for compensating 
the levels of the Niagara River for the lowering caused by the power 
diversions and other diversions of the water of the Great Lakes. 
This plan consists of dumping the excavated rock obtained in the 
construction of the new power plants in such a way that it will 
serve as a submerged weir to raise the level of the Chippawa-Grass 
Island Pool. This would form a convenient and not unduly ex- 
pensive method of disposing of this waste rock and it is understood 
that the power companies are readv to do it without expense to the 
Government. In fact two companies are now placing spoil in the 
desired location and considerable compensating effect has already 
been obtained. 

The dumping of a sufficient quantity of spoil in the river below 
the line from Port Day to Hog Island will restore the Chippawa- 
Grass Island Pool to the elevation which it had before diversion of 
water from the Great Lakes commenced. The spoil should be 
dumped chiefly in the deeper parts of the river so that no shoals 
will be formed which might be obstructions to the free passage of 



278 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

ice and drift. To maintain the full discharge of the American 
Falls no rock should be dumped within 1,500 feet of Port Day. 
From the northern end of this spoil bank a similar obstruction 
should extend westward to the head of Goat Island. This will pre- 
vent too much water sweeping around the American end of the weir 
and then turning south into the Horseshoe channel again. This 
part of the work lies in shallow water of moderate velocity, where 
the spoil can be easily placed from a trestle or cableway. For the 
other part, in deeper water, dumping from scows is now being em- 
ployed. 

The exact quantity of material which must be placed to produce 
the effect required can not be figured in advance. If the work of 
depositing it proceeds systematically with careful comparison of 
the gages at Buffalo, Chippawa, Port Day, and Wing Dam the 
desired condition can be produced. The flow over the American 
Falls should be made 12,000 cubic feet per second at mean stage. 
This is slightly greater than its natural flow and ensures a satisfac- 
tory spectacle at all seasons and all ordinary stages. 

4. ALLOWABLE DIVERSION AROUND THE RAPIDS. 

Problem somewhat different from that in Section E-2. — The ques- 
tion of the permissible diversion around the Whirlpool Rapids and 
Lower Rapids rests on a somewhat different basis than the question 
of diversion around the Falls. The photographs give no informa- 
tion about extreme low stages and there is nothing to afford a meas- 
ure of the quantity required for ice sluicing, as the American Falls 
did in the other problem. All the available records of soundings and 
velocities in the Gorge have been collected, compared, and carefully 
studied. The records of gauges maintained on the lower river by 
the United States Lake Survey and by the Hydraulic Power Co. 
were studied and other gauges were installed and maintained during 
this investigation. Some of the engineers employed had been 
students of the hydraulic conditions of the Niagara River for years, 
and no endeavor was spared to observe the rapids under unusual 
conditions and to discuss them with others who had done so. 

Limiting conditions. — The mean and extreme conditions to be pro- 
vided for here are the same as on the upper river ; that is — 

1. Scenic beauty must be protected down to minimum flows of 
150,000 cubic feet per second. 

2. Ice-sluicing capacity must be protected down to 130,000 cubic 
feet per second of daily mean flow, and 

3. Down to 100,000 cubic feet per second for temporary extreme 
stages of only a few hours' duration. 

The scenic requirements are that in general there shall be no 
noticeably shoal spots of any size. A few isolated bowlders against 
which the waters dash are not objectionable. The volume and 
velocity of the stream must be such that its impact upon the sub- 
merged rocks breaks it up into spray, breakers, standing waves, and 
white water. A moderate reduction of flow will certainly increase 
these features, as they are now noticeably more conspicuous at low 
stages than at high. 

The steeper portions of the rapids seem able to take care of all 
their ice difficulties with little trouble. The most critical point is at 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 279 

the head of the Whirlpool Rapids near the railroad bridges. The 
annual ice bridge that forms in the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool above the 
upper highway bridge sometimes breaks loose and comes down 
stream in large masses. These jam into the narrowing gorge at this 
point and the river must be left with sufficient power to break up 
these masses and carry them down into the rapids. At a greatly 
reduced stage a similar condition might conceivably itrise at the exit 
of the Whirlpool or at the head of Foster Flats but it is believed 
that the foot of the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool will always be the critical 
point. Permits should be so worded that it is possible to stop all 
diversions for a short time to prevent the formation of impending 
ice jams. In 1908 an ice jam did form at this place during rather 
unusual conditions. The rising water did considerable damage at 
the Ontario Power Co.'s plant because their building was not de- 
signed for such a high stage of the pool. This defect has since been 
corrected and a similar rise would now do no harm. The other 
power houses in the Gorge were not seriously damaged. 

Allowable diversion. — The most careful consideration of all the 
available evidence has led to the conclusion that 40,000 cubic feet of 
water per second may be diverted around the rapids at all times except 
possibly when an unusual combination of extreme low stage and ex- 
treme cold threatens the formation of a dangerous ice jam. Such a 
diversion will leave a flow of 167,000 cubic feet per second through the 
rapids at mean stage and it is expected that with this flow the scenic 
beauty of the rapids will be greater than at the present daily mean. 
At ordinary low stage the flow through the rapids will be 11 0,000, which 
is sufficient as far as scenic effects are concerned. At the extreme 
low stages that occur for but a few hours in many years the flow 
would be reduced to 90,000 cubic feet per second ; this is satisfactory 
as a minimum, but if intense cold weather should occur at the same 
time it might be desirable to reduce the diversion for a few hours. 

This limit of 40,000 cubic feet per second for the diversion around 
the rapids is not necessarily permanent. After plants have been 
operating with such a diversion for some years observation may 
show that considerable increase in the diversion is allowable and 
desirable. 

Power output of recommended diversions. — New plants designed 
on modern lines ought to give an output of at least 29-J- horsepower 
per cubic foot per second if using diversions around the Falls and 
rapids both, and about 21 horsepower per cubic foot per second if 
using diversions around the Falls only. With the permissible di- 
versions of 80,000 cubic feet per second around the Falls, and 40.000 
around the rapids, the total power output would be just over 
2,000,000 horsepower if the water were all used in new plants. If 
the present plants were retained the total output would be about 
1,660,000 horsepower. Plans are now under way for replacing the 
inefficient Niagara Falls Power Co. plant and station 2 of the Hy- 
draulic Power Co. As the demand for power grows and it becomes 
important to get the greatest possible output from every drop of 
water diverted it is reasonable to suppose that the inefficient plants 
on the Canadian side will also be replaced by better ones, and the 
output of 2,000,000 horsepower would ultimately be obtained. 



280 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 
5. DIVISION OF PROPOSED DIVERSION AND OF COST OF REMEDIAL WORKS. 

Division of diversion allowed under present treaty. — The treaty 
between the United States and Great Britain, signed January 1, 1909 y 
allows the diversion of the waters of the Niagara River above the 
Falls to the extent of 20,000 cubic feet per second on the American 
side and 36,000 cubic feet per second on the Canadian side. The rea- 
sons which led the commissioners to decide upon these particular 
limits are unfortunately not matters of record. A significant clause 
in the treaty states that it is the desire of both parties to limit the 
diversion of water from the Niagara River " with the least possible 
injury to investments which have already been made in the construc- 
tion of power plants." As a matter of fact, the limits set by the 
treaty are very slightly greater than the total rights claimed by the 
companies which were actually diverting water at the time when the 
treaty was signed, if it be assumed that the right of the Niagara 
Falls Power Co. to double its present plant had expired from nonuse. 

Considering all the evidence which is known to have been placed 
before the treaty commissioners, it appears probable that the limits 
set were based upon the projects of the companies which were then 
diverting water and not on any abstract opinions as to the respective 
rights of the two countries. As the object of the treaty was to pre- 
vent any great increase of the diversions without doing anv harm to 
capital already invested, this method of dividing the diversion was 
at that time both satisfactory and just. The present question of 
how future diversions should be divided between the two countries 
rests on an altogether different basis, and the existing treaty there- 
fore can hardly be said to form a precedent for determining the 
manner in which it should be divided between the two countries. 

Conditions affecting the division of the proposed diversions. — 
The Niagara River, and in fact the whole Great Lakes system from 
Pigeon River to St. Regis, forms a water boundary separating the 
United States and Canada. The large topographical map accom- 
panying this report, plates Nos. 13 and 14, shows the international 
boundary line from Buckhorn Island to Lewiston as it was located 
and marked by the International Waterways Commission. It is 
known to have been the intention of the framers of the treaty of 
Ghent, which laid down this boundary line, to divide the boundary 
rivers between the two countries with approximate equality. Of 
course, the men who framed this treaty were interested in the di- 
vision of the water surface rather than of the flow. In general, the 
boundary line divides the flow between the two countries with ap- 
proximate equality, but in a few places the division is very unequal. 
The greatest inequality is found near the head of Fosters Flats, 
where more than 80 per cent of the flow is on the United States side 
of the boundary, and at the crest of the Falls, where only about 6 
or 7 per cent of the flow in the river is on the United States side. 

It is evident that the diversion can not fairly be divided upon the 
basis of the division of the flowing water by the boundary line. The 
water is to be diverted around a reach of the river several miles 
in length. The diversion can only be divided in the ratio by which 
the boundary divides the flow of the stream at some one point, but 
at any other point the ratio would be quite different. Moreover, 
at the crest of the Falls the division will change as the crest recedes. 
It is quite possible that after 20 or 30 years the apex notch should 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 281 

again be on the American side of the boundary, and ultimately the 
greater part of the flow over the crest line might be on the American 
side. 

Another possible basis for the division is found in the ultimate 
source of the water. The latest studies indicate that about 52 per 
cent of the flow is derived from rainfall on the American side of 
the boundary line and 48 per cent from rainfall on the Canadian 
side. On this basis the United States would be entitled to a little 
more than half of the proposed diversion. 

It is not believed that either of the principles outlined above 
affords a just and equitable method of dividing the diversion be- 
tween the two countries. In fact, if not in law, the Niagara River 
is owned and used jointly by the two nations. Each has by treaty 
an equal right of navigation on both sides of the boundary. Neither 
can make any appreciable change in its part of the river without caus- 
ing some change, either favorable or adverse, in the part belonging to 
its neighbor. If either country should attempt to exercise its " right " 
to take half the water of the river or all the water on its side of the 
boundary at any point, it would inflict irreparable damage on the 
other nation. Finally, the two countries must be considered to be 
joint trustees and custodians of the natural beauties of the Falls and 
rapids. 

For these reasons it would appear that the only just and impartial 
method of dividing the proposed diversions is to award half of each, 
giving each the right to divert 20,000 cubic feet per second around 
the lower rapids and 40,000 cubic feet per second around the Falls. 
If experience shows that greater diversions are permissible at either 
place, these should also be divided equally. 

Dividing cost of works. — There can be no question but that the 
cost of these remedial works should be divided equally between the 
two countries. The benefits are received by both sides. The preser- 
vation of the beauty of the Falls is to the joint benefit of both sides 
and can not be divided. If the diversions are divided equally the 
advantage to the two nations will depend only on the use which 
each makes of its respective share. The construction, of course, 
must be under the joint supervision of both. 

Albert B. Jones, 
First Lieutenant, Engineers, United States Army. 



Buffalo, N. Y., May 19, 1920. 
From : Albert B. Jones, junior engineer. 
To : The Division Engineer Lakes Division, Buffalo, N. Y. 
Subject : Supplementary report on preservation of scenic beauty of 

Niagara Falls and of the rapids of Niagara River. 

1. In my report on Preservation of Scenic Beauty of Niagara 
Falls and of the Rapids of Niagara River, submitted August 30, 1919, 
were numerous photographs showing the appearance of the Falls and 
rapids under various conditions of high and low water. These photo- 
graphs were taken by Mr. W. S. Richmond, assistant engineer, in 
October, November, and December, 1917. It was the original inten- 
tion to take three series of photographs illustrating conditions at 
high, mean, and low stage of the river. Excellent pictures were 
obtained at high and at mean stage, but weather conditions were such 



282 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

that no extremely low-stage photographs could be obtained, and the 
" low-stage " series differed but very slightly from the pictures taken 
at mean stage. 

2. In the spring of 1920 an extremely low stage of Lake Erie pre- 
vailed for several months, and during the third week of April a 
continuance of easterly winds reduced the flow of the Niagara River 
to an extremely small amount, smaller than had been observed for 
several years. On April 22 it was possible to get an excellent series 
of low-water conditions at the Falls. On the following day a west- 
erly gale caused a decided rise in stage, and it has not since been pos- 
sible to get photographs of low-water conditions in the Niagara 
Gorge. 

3. The earlier pictures are published as photographs Nos. 73 to 
104, inclusive, in the division engineer's report on Investigation of 
Water Diversion From the Great Lakes and Niagara River, Appen- 
dix C. They are referred to hereafter in this report as " photographs 
of the old series." These pictures show 11 views of the Falls and the 
rapids above the Falls, each view being represented by from one to 
five pictures taken at different stages. The amount of water flowing 
over the Falls in these pictures is as follows : 

" High stage," 220,000 to 250,000 cubic feet per second. 

" Mean stage," 160,000 to 165,000 cubic feet per second. 

"Low stage," 155,000 cubic feet per second. 

In the series taken on April 22, 1920, it was possible to get pictures 
of nine of these views. Two of the views — namely, " Canadian Rap- 
ids from Canadian side, looking upstream," and "East end of Can- 
adian Falls from the Canadian end," could not be photographed be- 
cause of heavy mist. The water flowing over the Falls when these 
pictures were taken varied from 125,000 to 140,000 cubic feet per 
second. 

4. Photograph No. 130 is a panorama of the Falls taken from " Falls 
View," with 180,000 cubic feet per second flowing in the river and 
135,000 cubic feet per second flowing over the Falls. It should be 
compared with photograph No. 73 of the old series, which shows the 
river slightly above mean stage, the flow over the Falls being 165,000 
cubic feet per second. The most noticeable differences at the low 
stage are the bowlder shoals and isolated bowlders uncovered near 
each end of the Horseshoe Falls and in the Canadian Rapids. The 
bareness of the rock ledges at the ends of the Horseshoe is also 
shown, but this is more clearly illustrated in photographs Nos. 6 to 
9. It is apparent that even at this very low stage the beauty of the 
American Falls is but little affected, especially when seen from this 
distant viewpoint. 

5. Photograph No. 131 is a view of the American rapids above the 
Goat Island Bridge ; river discharge, 185,000 cubic feet per second ; 
flow over Falls, 140,000 cubic feet per second. It should be com- 
pared with photographs Nos. 74 to 77 of the old series. The com- 
parison is somewhat obscured by the large amount of ice in the new 
picture, but it is fairly apparent that even this very great reduction 
in the flow over the Falls does very little da mage to the scenic beauty 
of these rapids. 

6. Photograph No. 132 shows the Canadian Rapids as seen from a 
point on Goat Island opposite the power house of the Toronto Power 
Co. The river flow when this picture was taken was 185,000 cubic 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 283 

feet per second, and the flow over the Falls was 135,000 cubic feet 
per second. This picture should be compared with photographs 
Nos. 78 to 80 of the old series. The bowlder beach in the foreground 
and the numerous bowlders and small shoals in the middle of the 
rapids are the principal indications of the low water. 

7. Photograph No. 133 is a view of the American Falls from the op- 
posite side of the Gorge; discharge of river, 185,000 cubic feet per 
second ; flow over Falls, 135,000 cubic feet per second. This should 
be compared with photographs Nos. 82 to 86 of the old series. The 
beauty of these Falls has been somewhat, though not greatly, dimin- 
ished by the low stage. This is chiefly noticeable in the thinness of 
the water curtain at the right-hand end of the main fall, and also 
just to the left of the " ice mountain." A similar but lesser effect 
was visible to the eye at the left end of the Luna Falls or " Bridal 
Veil " and at the left end of the main fall. The camera failed to show 
this distinctly in the photograph. A comparison of photograph No. 
4 with photograph No. 85 of the old series is particularly interest- 
ing. No. 85 was taken in 1906, when the total diversion was only 
about 15,000 cubic feet per second. No. 4 was taken in 1920, when 
the total diversion was about 50,000. The total river flow was almost 
exactly the same in the two cases, the estimated difference being less 
than 5,000 cubic feet per second. The difference between the two 
pictures, therefore, is an excellent measure of the effect of the increase 
of diversion in the last 13^ years upon the scenic beauty of the 
American Falls. 

8. Photograph No. 134 is an attempt to show the American Falls 
from Goat Island. A heavy shower of mist was falling upon the 
camera and the picture is very poor. The discharge of the river at 
this time was 175,000 cubic feet per second, and the flow over the 
Falls was 125,000 cubic feet per second. This picture should be 
compared with photographs Nos. 87 to 90 of the old series. No. 90 
was taken in 1906 at about the same river flow, but with a diversion 
of only about 15,000 cubic feet per second. Unfortunately it was 
not taken from exactly the same spot. As far as this very inferior 
photograph (No. 4) indicates anything it bears out the conclusions 
expressed in paragraph 7. 

9. Photograph No. 135 is a panoramic view of the Horseshoe Falls 
taken from the head of the Terrapin Point path on Goat Island; 
river discharge, 185,000 cubic feet per second; flow over Falls, 
140,000 cubic feet per second. This should be compared with photo- 
graphs Nos. 91 to 94 of the old series. The ends of the Horseshoe 
Falls are the places most seriously affected by low-river stage or in- 
creased diversion, and the effect on these points is well shown in 
these photographs. In the foreground the " Goat Island Shelf " 
is shown nearly unwatered and covered with unsightly bowlders. 
The flow over the extreme east end of the Falls has almost vanished. 
Toward the Canadian end are two complete breaks in the water cur- 
tain (directly under the left end of large building on the sky line). 
These discontinuities are not noticeable except at extremely low 
stages. The uncovered rock ledge at the Canadian end is barely 
visible through the mist, but is shown in the next picture. A com- 
parison of No. 6 with No. 94 of the old series, taken in 1906, is par- 
ticularly illustrative of the effect of increased diversion upon the 
scenic beauty of the Horseshoe Falls. These two pictures show the 



284 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

river at exactly the same stage, but in the old photograph the total 
diversion was only about 15,000 cubic feet per second, while in 
the new one it is about 55,000. 

10. Photograph No. 136 is a picture of the Canadian end of the 
Horseshoe Falls ; river discharge, 180,000 cubic feet per second ; flow 
over Falls, 135,000 cubic feet per second. It should be compared with 
photographs Nos. 95 and 96 of the old series. The contrast with 
the appearance at a very high stage as shown in No. 96 is especially 
striking. The white patches in the immediate foreground of this 
picture are neither ice nor water, but are a peculiar effect caused by 
the reflection of the sky on the wet rocks. 

11. Photograph No. 137 shows the east end of the Horseshoe Falls, 
as seen from in front of the " Refractory," on the Canadian side. The 
river discharge was 180,000 cubic feet per second and the flow over 
the Falls was 135,000 cubic feet per second. This picture should be 
compared with photographs Nos. 97 to 99 of the old series. It shows 
very plainly the effect of diversion or low stage in denuding this end 
of the Horseshoe. 

12. Photograph No. 138 is another view of the east end of the Horse- 
shoe Falls taken from the edge of the cliff on Goat Island; river 
discharge, 185,000 cubic feet per second; flow over Falls, 135,000 
cubic feet per second. It should be compared with photographs Nos. 
102 to 104 of the old series. This illustrates in a most dramatic man- 
ner the effects already shown in photographs Nos. 6 and 8. 

13. The nature and causes of the damage to the scenic beauty of 
Niagara Falls shown in this series of photographs have been de- 
scribed and explained at length in my report on the " Preservation 
of the Scenic Beauties of Niagara Falls and of the Rapids of the 
Niagara River," dated August 30, 1919. That report also states that 
these evils can be cured, and outlines a method of restoring the 
original beauty of the famous cataract, while allowing a much-needed 
increase in the amount of water used for power development. Noth- 
ing is brought out by these photographs tending to modify any of 
the conclusions of that report. 

14. During the period of low water it was impracticable to obtain 
photographs of conditions in the rapids of the Niagara Gorge. 
However, in the late afternoon of April 22 a hasty reconnoissance 
from the Falls to Lewiston was made on a Gorge Route electric car. 
The effects of the extreme low stage upon the scenic beauty of the 
rapids was carefully observed by comparing the appearance of the 
rapids with the series of photographs taken in 1917. In some places 
the size and whiteness of breakers were reduced. In others new 
breakers and white water appeared where comparatively smooth 
rollers existed at ordinary stages. In many places no considerable 
chaDge was noticeable. At one point, just below Fosters Flats, large 
rocks projected above the water, nearly in the center of the channel, 
where no indication of their presence was shown in the photographs. 
On the whole, it may be said that the scenic beauty of these rapids 
was neither materially increased or decreased when the river flow 
was reduced to about 175,000 cubic feet per second. Nothing was 
observed tending to modify any of the conclusions expressed in the 
report of August 30, 1919. " 

Albert B. Jones, 

Junior Engineer, 



Appendix D. 

PROPOSITIONS FOR UTILIZING DIVERSIONS WITH 

GREATER ECONOMY. 



[Section F of Mr. Richmond's report.] 
1. GENERAL STATEMENT. 

The localities where diversions of water from the Great Lakes 
system occur, and the character of the diversions, have been de- 
scribed already in sections A, B, and C of this report, the quantity 
of water diverted being stated for each case. These descriptions 
show that many of the diversions are not used as efficiently as they 
might be. There are also many places where diversions could be 
used very efficiently for navigation, sanitation, or power purposes, 
but where no water is now diverted. 

The total amount of water diverted for navigation purposes is 
insignificant in comparison with that diverted for sanitary uses and 
power development. Any possible increase in the efficiency of its use 
for navigation would result in a totally imperceptible net gain, there- 
fore this phase of the subject will not be considered further in this 
report. 

With the exception of the diversions of the Sanitary District of 
Chicago, the same conditions obtains with respect to diversions for 
sanitary uses. In every other case of a diversion for sanitary pur- 
poses the water is returned to the Great Lakes Basin within a com- 
paratively short distance and no serious injury to any interests re- 
sults. The quantity of water pumped for water supply by the Chi- 
cago city waterworks in 1918 averaged 1,050 cubic feet per second, 
the maximum pumpage at any time being 1,315 cubic feet per 
second. This is much more than is used by any other city on the 
Lakes. Detroit is the second city in size in the Great Lakes region, 
and its average daily pumpage by the city waterworks is 220 cubic 
feet per second. It seems unnecessar}^ to consider here what might 
be done to increase the efficiency of these diversions. The possibility 
of increased efficiency in the use for sanitary purposes of the diver- 
sions of the Sanitary District of Chicago has already been treated in 
Section B of this report. 

In the matter of diversions for water power great increase in effi- 
ciency is possible. The diversion of the Sanitary District of Chicago 
could be made to yield much more power per cubic foot per second than 
at present. This has already been discussed in Section C. At Sault 
Ste. Marie, while the present plants are not particularly efficient, it 
appears that there is very little opportunity for increasing the effi- 
ciency economically. Along the St. Lawrence River there are several 

285 



286 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

places where considerable amounts of power could be obtained by 
proper development without serious damage to navigation or riparian 
interests. Small developments exist at most of these localities, but 
the only large-scale development along that portion of the river 
bordering United States territory is the one owned by the Aluminum 
Co. of America and its subsidiaries at Massena, N. Y. This is de- 
scribed in Section C. The water used in and along the New York 
State Barge Canal and the Welland Canal could probably be made 
to yield more power than it does at present. At Niagara Falls the 
greatest apportunity for increasing the efficiency of the use of diver- 
sions exists. It is toward this opportunity that the work of this inves- 
tigation has been especially directed. The remainder of Section F 
will be devoted to the present and prospective power development at 
Niagara Falls. Reference is here made to the description of Niagara 
River given in Section A, and to the map and profile on plates 11, 
13, and 14. 

The total head available at Niagara Falls depends on the location 
of the works utilizing it. From La Salle to Lewiston the fall is 
about 317^ feet and from Port Day to the Devils Hole it is 303 feet. 
Any reasonably efficient scheme must lie within these limits. The 
most economical propositions develop about 313 feet. The Maid-of- 
the-Mist Pool below the Falls offers an opportunity to divide this 
head into two stages. The upper stage affords a head of from 223 J 
to 218J feet, the lower one from 97 to 81-J feet. The above figures 
are taken at mean stage. 

On the Canadian side three companies are developing the upper 
stage. One is fairly efficient, the other two are not. In addition, 
two small plants use a small amount of water under a fraction of 
the head. Another plant to utilize the full head is now under con- 
struction. On the American side there are two separate develop- 
ments of the upper stage. One is very inefficient, not altogether 
through the fault of those responsible for the development; the 
other is the most efficient plant of all, and is now being extended to 
increase its capacity considerably, at the same time slightly improv- 
ing its average efficiency. 

With the Canadian plants, except as to their total diversion of 
water and exportation of electrical energy, the United States has 
nothing to do. A general description of them has been given pre- 
viously in section C of this report. On the United States side the 
present diversion allowed by treaty is 20,000 cubic feet per second. 
Various methods of using this water will be considered and the mat- 
ter of using any greater diversions which may be permitted in the 
future will be taken up. 

Since the inception of the Hydraulic Canal project some 75 years 
ago, scores of propositions for the development of Niagara power 
on a large scale have been advanced. Some were based on sound 
engineering knowledge and a broad grasp of the situation, and 
others were freakish and grotesque in the extreme. Several of the 
best schemes have been worked out rather completely during the 
course of this investigation, outline plans have been prepared, and 
estimates of the cost and the power output have been made. More 
than 20 other projects have been studied in more or less detail. The 
latter are mentioned in the report to the extent that their impor- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 287 

tance seemed to justify in each case. The plans and estimates were 
based on a diversion of 20,000 cubic feet of water per second and 
a stage of water surface in the river coincident with the mean 
stage for the 51 years ending 1910. The Niagara River profile 
compiled by the United States Lake Survey in 1912 was used, with 
corrections to the lower river profile obtained in 1917. (See pi. 
No. 11.) Distances, elevations of the ground surface, and depths 
of water in the river were obtained chiefly from the surveys made 
for this investigation and from Lake Survey manuscript charts. 
The published charts of the Lake Survey and Geological Survey 
and other maps were also used. Elevations of the rock surface 
were derived from rock soundings made for this investigation and 
from those made by the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. 

A great deal of time w T as spent in determining the proper unit 
costs to be used. Manufacturers of hydraulic and electrical ma- 
chinery submitted estimates of the cost of the various mechanical 
installations. The experience of engineers of various power com- 
panies, the city engineer of Niagara Falls, and other engineers and 
contractors accustomed to dredging, excavating, tunneling, or build- 
ing along the Niagara frontier was drawn upon. A detailed analysis 
of the elements entering into the cost of various operations was 
made. From the Federal Employment Agency and several large 
employers of labor data as to rates of wages were secured. Current 
prices of materials and equipment were obtained from various 
sources. The United States Railroad Administration gave freight 
rates for transportation of machinery. 

The proper determination of costs was greatly complicated by the 
rapid and almost continuous advance in price during the past few 
years of many classes of commodities and of labor. Most published 
engineering cost data pertain to a period when common labor was 
paid 15 cents an hour, cement cost $1 to $1.40 per barrel, and steel 
shapes cost approximately $1.75 per hundred pounds. In October, 
1918, labor was scarce at 50 cents an hour, cement cost from $2.50 to 
$3 per barrel, and steel shapes cost over $4 per hundred. The prices 
of many important materials fluctuate violently from month to 
month. The estimates given herein are based on conditions as of 
October, 1918. Because of the apparent importance of speed of 
development most of the construction items were figured on a basis 
of three 8-hour shifts per day. The unit prices are the prices at 
which it is assumed contracts would be let. They thus include con- 
tractors' profits, liability insurance, and expenses of organization 
and administration. To these have been added 10 per cent for engi- 
neering, inspection, accounting, and general overhead construction 
expenses, and 15 per cent for contingencies, including incomplete- 
ness of the design on which estimates are based — damages, omissions, 
losses, labor troubles, delays, and other unforeseen and unprevent- 
able causes of extra expense. The complete estimates include cost 
of real estate and interest during construction, but do not include 
cost of promotion, financing, organizing, buying out the rights of 
other companies, or purchasing and installing transformer and trans- 
mission equipment. The important items of this nature are treated 
in Section F 10. 

The schedule of unit prices adopted is given in table No. 28, which 
is self-explanatory except for the prices on tunnel excavation. The 



288 DIVERSION OE WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

smaller tunnels were of circular cross section. The larger tunnels 
were of horseshoe cross section, with the following characteristics: 
Height equal to horizontal diameter at mid height ; roof arch a semi- 
circle of radius equal to semidiameter ; sides tangent to roof arch 
and of radius equal to twice the diameter, or four times the radius 
of roof arch; invert of radius twice the diameter. The thickness 
of lining was assumed to vary with the net diameter according to 
table No. 29. 

Table No. 28. — Schedule of unit prices adopted. 



Class and description of work and materials. 



Earth excavation: 

Small jobs, less than 10,000 cubic yards 

Small jobs, less than 10,000 cubic yards, in cofferdam 

Jobs of 10,000 to 300,000 cubic yards 

Jobs of 10,000 to 300,000 cubic yards, in cofferdam 

Long canals, very large yardage, including hardpan . . 
Back fill 

Rock excavation: 

Small jobs, less than 10,000 cubic yards 

Small jobs, less than 10,000 cubic yards, in cofferdam 

Jobs of 10,000 to 300,000 cubic yards 

Jobs of 10,000 to 300,000 cubic yards, in cofferdam 

Deep wheel pits 

Shafts. 



Unit. 



Cubic yard . 

do .... 

do 

do 

do 

do 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



do 

do 

do 

Linear foot . . 

Cubic yards . 
do 



Power-house site, below cliff do . 

Power canal with channeled sides, including channeling do . 

Ship canal, 200 feet wide, channeled sides, including channeling do . 

Ship canal, 300 feet wide, channeled sides, including channeling do . 

Ship canal, 400 feet, wide, channeled sides, including channeling do . 

Lock pits do . 

Riprap do . 

Dredging: 

Hardpan in river 

Rock in river 

Rock in hydraulic canal 

Cofferdams, timber, rock filled, timber sheeted (D= depth of water) 

Concrete: 

Minor jobs, less than 10,000 cubic yards 

Power-house substructure, locks, plain walls, and finings, 10,000 yards 
or more. 

Reinforced arches, columns, beams, 1 per cent reinforcement do . 

Reinforced concrete, cost of reinforcement not included do . 

Reinforcing steel, each per cent per cubic yard of concrete i do 

Road pavement j Square yard 

Tunnels: 

Drift at top, 8 feet wide, 9 feet high, usually timbered Cubic yard. 

Heading, top, down to level 6 feet below drift, usually timbered ! do 

Bench, not timbered J do 

Concrete lining do 

Steel: j 

Iron and steel, common or plain shapes, not fabricated I Pound 

Racks, penstocks, frames, etc. , fabricated and erected ' do. . 

Steel castings ] do 

Steel forgings 

Other metals, bronze 

Oak fenders, etc. , fabricated and placed 

Gates, including settings, mechanisms, and motors, per square foot of full 

opening. 
Buildings: 

Power houses, complete with cranes, ventilating and heating equipment, do 

lighting installation, and elevators. 

Gatehouses, etc., with cranes, lighting, heating, and ventilating systems . 
Bridges: 

Class A, country roads, clear span 56 feet, length 65 feet, width 18 feet . . . 

Class B, main roads and city streets, span 56 feet. length 65 feet, width 27 
feet. 

Class C, main roads and city streets, two trolley tracks, length 65 feet, . 
width 60 feet. 

Class D, single-track railway, clear span 56 feet, length 65 feet do. 

Class E, railway with two or more tracks, 65 feet long, per track Track. 

Class F, electric railway with two tracks, length 65 feet Bridge. 

Swing, bascule, and fixed bridges for ship canal, not given in detail . . 
Switchboards — switches, switchboards, busses, connections to generators, Qlowatt 
and mechanisms. 



do 

M feet b. m. 
Square foot . 



do. 

Bridge. 
do. 



Unit price 
as of Octo- 
ber, 1918. 



$1.50 

2.00 

1.25 

1.75 

.65 

.45 

3.75 
4.25 
3.00 
3.50 
5.00 
12.00 
3.50 
2.25 
2.00 
1.95 
1.90 
2.25 
1 00 

1.25 

6.50 

25.00 

D" .40 

15.00 

12.00 
25.00 
15.00 
10.00 
3.00 

15.00 
9.00 
4.00 

14.00 

.07 
.10 
.12 
.20 
.80 
150. 00 
30.00 



15.00 

12.00 

4, 000. 00 
8, 000. 00 

35,000.00 

20, 000. 00 
18, 000. 00 
18, 000. 00 



2.25 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 289 

Table No. 28 — Schedule of unit prices adopted — Continued. 
Generating units. 

[Includes turbines from penstock connection to concrete draft tube, generator on same vertical shaft, with 
Kingsbury bearing and individual exciter and governor.] 





Head. 


Maxi- 
mum 

capacity. 


Revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 


Price f. o. b factory. 


Freight 

and 
erection 
per unit. 


Freight 

and 
erection 

per 
horse- 
power. 


Freight, 
erection, 


Case. 


Per 
horse- 
power. 


Per 
unit. 


and 
switch 
gear per 
horse- 
power. 


] 


Feet. 

90 

90 

216 

300 

300 


Horse- 
power. 
15,500 
22, 000 
39, 000 
22,000 
39,000 


125 
100 
150 
250 
214 


- 

S16. 00 
15.50 
15.00 

-14.50 
14.10 


$248, 000 
341, 000 
585, 000 
319, 000 
550, 000 


$19, 000 
26,000 
44,000 
24, 000 
41, 000 


$1.23 
1.18 
1.13 
1.09 
1.05 


$3.48 


2.. 


3.43 


3 


3.38 


4 


3.34 


5 


3.30 







Johnson valves. — Head, 100; cost in place, $43,000. Head, 200; cost in place, 
$53,000. Head, 300; cost in place, $63,000. 

Table No. 29. — Thickness of concrete lining in tunnels. 



Net 
diameter 
of tunnel. 


Net 
thickness 
of lining. 


Average 
gross thick- 
ness of 
lining. 


Feet. 
4 
8 
12 
15 
16 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 


Feet. 
1.38 
1.42 
1.46 
1.50 
1.51 
1.56 
1.63 
1.72 
1.83 
1.98 
2.20 
2.50 


Feet. 
1.88 
1.92 
1.96 
2.00 
2.01 
2.06 
2.13 
2.22 
2.33 
2.48 
2.70 
3.00 



The average thickness of concrete assumed as necessary to line the 
overbreak was one-half foot. Excavation yardage was computed to 
the average overbreak line. It was assumed that in each case a drift 
9 feet high and 8 feet wide would first be driven on the center line 
at the top of the excavation, this work to cost $15 per cubic yard, in- 
cluding such timbering as found necessary. The drift was to be 
followed by a heading completing the excavation down to a hori- 
zontal line, 15 feet below top of drift, and costing $9 per cubic yard, 
including any necessary timbering. The balance of the excavation 
was taken as bench work at $4 per cubic yard. Plain concrete lining 
was assumed at $14 per cubic yard. On these assumptions the costs 
of tunnels per linear foot were computed to be as given in Table* 
No 



30. 



27880—21- 



-19 



290 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 
Table No. 30. — Estimated cost of tunnels per linear foot. 



Section. 



Circular. . 

Do... 

Do... 

Do... 

Do... 
Horseshoe 

Do... 



Net 
diameter. 


Cost. 


Feet. 




4 


$44 


8 


84 


12 


127 


16 


169 


20 


213 


15 


167 


20 


225 



Section. 



Horseshoe 

Do 

Do.... 
Do.... 
Do.... 
Do.... 



Net 
diameter. 



Feet. 



25 
30 
35 

40 
45 
50 



Cost. 



293 
365 
450 
546 
660 
794 



Costs for intermediate diameters were interpolated. In the ease 
of tapering sections of tunnel, 10 per cent was added to tabulated cost 
for mean diameter. For circular tunnels of steep slope, when more 
than 20 feet in diameter, or for vertical circular risers of similar size 
and thickness of lining, the price taken was 150 per cent of the tabu- 
lated cost of horseshoe tunnels of equal net diameters. 

In arriving at the construction costs given in subsequent parts of 
this section it was necessary in each case to assume a fixed set of 
conditions. The conditions peculiar to each case are, for the most 
part, embodied in the outline designs, which define in a general way 
the required construction, materials, and equipment, the fundamental 
assumptions common to all the projects, in addition to the unit costs 
and tunnel characteristics already explained, are as follows : (1) That 
each project should provide for the utilization of 20,000 cubic feet 
of water per second in approximately the most economical manner 
consistent with requirements of the project. (2) That economic de- 
sign should be based on an assumed value of electric energy on the 
bus bars of $15 per horsepower supplied continuously for one year. 
In this connection it must be borne in mind that the cost factors 
omitted, namely, promotion, financing, organizing, purchase of 
rights, and purchasing and installing transformer and transmission 
equipment, would add considerably to this figure, making the cost at 
any customer's premises $16 to $20 under very favorable circum- 
stances. (3) That sufficient funds could be secured at an interest 
rate of 5J per cent per annum. (4) That a depreciation allowance 
of 2-| per cent of the entire construction cost to date would be set 
aside annually in a depreciation reserve. (5) That the annual 
taxes and insurance charges against the productive portion of the 
plant would be 2 per cent of the cost of such productive portions. 
(6) That the assumed prices of parcels of land and of rights of way 
were sufficient to cover agents' and lawyers' fees and costs of any 
necessary condemnation proceedings. (7) That no taxes would be 
assessed against incomplete or nonproductive works, and any taxes 
assessed against nonproductive lands would be charged to contingen- 
cies. (8) That machinery installed in the power houses would be 
of sufficient capacity to carry full load in each power house with one 
unit shut down, the generators being able to carry full turbine load 
at 90 per cent power factor. (9) That the over-all efficiency of 
turbine and generator combined would be 86 per cent, including 
excitation and all hydraulic losses from lower end of penstock to 
tail- water beyond draft tube. (10) That construction would be 
rushed, most of the work being done in three 8-hour shifts per day. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 291 

(11) That the market for power would build up with sufficient 
rapidity to absorb all the power as soon as it could be produced. 

In the hydraulic computations the Kutter formula was used, the 
value of " N " being taken at 0.013 for tunnels lined with concrete, 
0.028 for canals in rock with channeled sides excavated in the dry, 
and 0.050 for the Hydraulic Canal deepened by dredging. 

The stated power outputs of the various plants are for electric 
energy at the bus bars, the characteristics being 12,000 volts, 3 phase, 
25 cycles per second. Power is based on continuous operation of the 
plant in good condition and at best efficiency. The full diversion of 
20,000 cubic feet of water per second is assumed to be used and mean 
river stage to prevail, as previously stated. The fact should not be 
ignored that the extreme range of river stage at Port Day is from 
about 559 to about 566, the mean being 562. The range in the Maid 
of the Mist Pool is about four times as great, and in the same direc- 
tion. At the site of proposed power houses in the lower gorge the 
fluctuation is about two and one-half times what it is at Port Day. 
All elevations given in this report are in feet above United States 
standard datum, the zero of which refers to elevation of mean tide 
at New York, and they are based on the adjustment of this datum 
made in 1903. 

In regard to the schemes which have been worked out rather com- 
pletely it should be stated that the intent was to prepare outline 
layouts and designs in sufficient detail to give in each case a definite 
basis for a fair estimate of the construction cost. Great pains were 
taken that all essential major details should be in accord with sound 
engineering principles and should be thoroughly practical. Beyond 
this it was not intended to go. The plans described and illustrated 
are not final designs. All minor details are omitted. The outline 
designs are made angular to simplify computation of quantities. 
In case any one of these projects should be adopted it would be 
necessary to design carefully and in detail each essential feature. 
What seemed to be the best ideas and suggestions from whatever 
source were utilized. Acknowledgments in detail are considered out 
of place in the main portion of such a report, but are given in general 
terms in Appendix K. The outline drawings are best designated 
as sketches and are intended only to illustrate the main features of 
each scheme for which an estimate of cost was prepared. 

In determining the most economical size of tunnel, canal, or other 
structure of prime importance the principle followed was that 
greatest economy was secured by using the size which made the sum 
of the annual fixed charges upon it and the annual value of power 
lost because of it a minimum. Economical sizes were not determined 
with great exactness ; partly because it was believed that tunnels and 
canals at Niagara Falls should be made a little larger than present 
economy demands, both to provide more power, even if at a slightly 
higher rate, and to anticipate improvements in the shorter lived 
generating machinery; partly because best economy was dependent 
not only on the estimated construction costs and fixed charges, but 
also on the assumed selling price of electrical energy, and partly 
because preliminary computations on the estimates had in some 
cases progressed beyond the point of fixing economical sizes before 
the final unit prices and percentage fixed charges had been adopted 
and recomputation was deemed an unwarranted refinement. 



292 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The differential surge tanks provided in several of the estimates 
were calculated to regulate hydraulic conditions involved in starting 
up one unit at a time and in shutting down the entire plant sud- 
denly. Provision was made to hold all the water in the tank in the 
second case, although the tank might be somewhat less expensive if 
designed to waste a portion of it. 

In computing time of completion and interest during construc- 
tion it was assumed that the machinery and electrical equipment of 
one unit could be procured, installed, and made ready for operation 
in one year, and the other units one every three months thereafter. 
This assumption was based on statements made by manufacturers. 
Other time estimates were based on the progress made on similar 
jobs. 

The estimates which follow are believed to form a satisfactory and 
reliable basis for comparing the cost of the different propositions 
considered. The actual cost of any future plants will depend to a 
very large extent upon the future prices of labor and materials, 
which in the present unsettled state of affairs can not be forecast. 
Had the state of the science and art of hydroelectric practice been 
such that similar plants could have been built in 1908 the cost would 
have been only about 40 per cent of the cost in 1918. To predict 
whether costs will continue to rise or will tend to approximate the 
old values is, of course, impossible. 

2. PRESENT NIAGARA FALLS PLANTS. 

Early history. — The first recorded use of the water power of the 
Niagara River was in the year 1725, when a French settler is said 
to have built a small sawmill on the edge of the rapids just above 
the Falls. During the century that followed various similar installa- 
tions were made, until, in 1825, three gristmills, two sawmills, and 
a paper mill were operating on Niagara River power. These were 
all crude affairs, utilizing but a few feet of head and an insignificant 
fraction of the water to generate the power required to satisfy the 
modest needs of a frontier village. Mills of this type continued to 
be built from time to time during the middle years of the nineteenth 
century, but the possibility of power development on a grander scale 
was early realized by farseeing men. De Witt Clinton, the father 
of the Erie Canal, in 1810 wrote in his journal that Niagara Falls 
is "the best place for hydraulic works in the world." In 1853 the 
construction of the Hydraulic Canal, the first large-scale project, was 
commenced, and in 1872 the first mill on this canal began to operate. 
The year 1879 marks the first use of Niagara power to generate 
electricity. The construction of the first large, modern electric sta- 
tion was begun in 1890 and was completed in 1895. This was fol- 
lowed by two more stations, and in 1914 the American power plants 
reached their present state of development. Photograph No. 139 is 
of one of the earlier developments. It shows in the upper view the 
paper mill on Green Island as it existed in 1885, and in the lower 
view the appearance of the same site after restoration of the natural 
scenery by the park commission. Photograph No. 140 is a reproduc- 
tion of an old map of Niagara Falls, showing the location of power 
developments then existing and the proposed location of the Hydrau- 
lic Canal 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 293 

History of the Hydraulic Power Co. — The earliest suggestion of 
what was afterwards known as the Hydraulic Canal seems to have 
come from Augustus Porter in 1842. Five years later he and Peter 
Emslie, a civil engineer, published a plan for such a work. On March 
22. 1853, the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Co. was incorporated. Its 
paid-up capital stock was $500,000, which it was authorized to in- 
crease to $5,000,000. Its president was Caleb S. Woodhull, ex-mayor 
of New York City, but Horace II. Day soon became the moving 
spirit of the concern, and the completion of the canal was largely 
due to his energy and persistence. The project comprised a canal 
70 feet wide and 10 feet deep, about three-quarters of a mile long. 
The canal was to start from a point about 1 mile above the Falls and 
terminate in a basin near the edge of the Gorge about half a mile 
below the Falls. The basin was to be about half a mile long, and 
between it and the edge of the cliff were the mill sites, where the 
water was to be used under moderate heads and then spilled over 
the cliff. The estimated capacity of the canal was 2,436 cubic feet 
per second. The works projected, including the route of the canal 
as finally constructed, are shown on photograph No. 140. 

The company acquired a 100-foot right of way for the canal from 
the Porter family and about 80 acres of land for mill sites. The 
route was surveyed by E. R. Blackwell, civil engineer, of Buffalo, and 
a contract for the excavation was let to Latham, Gage & Hawes for 
the sum of $136,000. Construction began on April 20, 1853. Water 
was admitted in 1856, and the canal was considered complete in 1861. 
As actually constructed, it was only 36 feet wide and 8 feet deep. 
The official opening of the canal in 1857 was the occasion of a popular 
celebration, three small steamers formally opening navigation from 
the upper Niagara River to Port Day, at the head of the canal. 
There the enterprise came to a standstill. During the next 16 years 
only one small tenant was obtained to utilize the company's power. 
This was a small flour mill, developing 150 horsepower under 25 feet 
head, which was built in 1872 by C. B. Gaskill. It is now owned and 
operated by the Cataract City Milling Co. Lack of market for the 
power bankrupted the company, and the stockholders' investment, 
about $1,000,000, was practically a total loss. 

In 1877 Jacob F, Schoellkopf, of Buffalo, and A. M. Chesbrough 
bought the rights and property of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Co. 
at a very low figure. The following year Schoellkopf bought up 
Chesbrough's interest and organized the Niagara Falls Hydraulic 
Power & Slanuf acturing Co. with a capital of $10,000. An important 
part of the consideration that Chesbrough received for his interest 
was a mill site between the basin and the cliff and the right to draw 
from the basin an amount of water u equal to 900 horsepower under 
a head of 50 feet." Two davs later Chesbrough sold this land and 
water right to Capt. Charles B. Gaskill. Gaskill built a grist mill 
on his new property. From this grant the Pettebone-Cataract Paper 
Co. derives most of its present rights. 

Not long afterwards the Schoellkopf interests built a flour mill, 
which is still operating and is known as the Schoellkopf & Matthews 
Mill. In 1880 a paper mill leased land and water power, and from 
that time on the number of tenant companies and the amount of 
power developed increased rapidly. The first water wheel had been 
installed under a 25-foot head, but as the design of wheels improved 



294 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

the head was increased to a maximum of nearly 100 feet, and in some 
instances the tail water from one installation was collected and passed 
through another wheel. 

In 1881 the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power & Manufacturing Co. 
installed electric generators in what came to be called its Station 
No. 1, and sold electric power to various manufacturers and to the 
village. This marks the first commercial development of electric 
power at Niagara, although the Falls and park had been illuminated 
by a small private electric plant two years previously. Station 1 
contained three units, operating under a head of 75 feet, and develop- 
ing a total of 1,800 horsepower. This plant was later leased to the 
Cliff Paper Co. During the eighties and early nineties a very con- 
siderable industrial district was built up in the vicinity of the basin, 
consisting chiefly of flour mills, paper mills, and electroplating 
establishments. 

In 1892 the enlargement of the canal to a width of TO feet and a 
depth of 14 feet was commenced. Meanwhile the rapid development 
of electrical and hydraulic machinery and of electrochemical proc- 
esses and the example set by the immense project of the Niagara Falls 
Power Co. led the company to undertake the generation of electricity 
on a larger scale. In 1895, the year when the Niagara Falls Power 
Co. first began to generate power, the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power 
& Manufacturing Co. began the construction of a new power house, 
known as Station No. 2. This was the first installation on the canal 
which was designed to use the total available head. It was built at 
the foot of the cliff and received its water by penstocks from a fore 
bay connected with the basin by two flumes. It contained 16 turbines, 
with a total rated capacity of 31,250 horsepower. These drove 31 
generators, with a total rated capacity of 22,980 kilowatts. The tur- 
bines were owned by the power company, but most of the generators 
were the property of the Pittsburgh Reduction Co., which purchased 
mechanical power from the water power company. This plant first 
delivered power in December, 1896, and was completed in 1901. 
Photograph No. 141 is of the fore bay and photograph No. 142 of the 
power station of this development while under construction. As 
illustrating one of the difficulties which had to be contended with, 
photograph No. 143 is given, showing the roof of Station No. 2 
crushed in by ice falling from the face of the cliff. One-third of the 
machinery was covered with ice and debris. The company was put to 
considerable expense, both to repair the damage and also to build a 
high masonry wall for retaining the ice. 

The closing years of the nineteenth and the opening years of the 
succeeding century saw a vast development of the electrochemical 
industries which was, in no small measure, inspired by the large 
amounts of cheap electric power available at Niagara Falls. These 
years saw the invention or commercial development of the processes 
for making aluminum, calcium carbide, carborundum, artificial 
graphite, and other products which before had been either unknown 
or known only as rare and expensive curiosities. These new indus- 
tries were largely dependent upon the Niagara electrical develop- 
ments, and the demand for power soon outran the capacity of the 
plants. In 1904 a new power plant, station 3, was begun, together 
with a further enlargement of the canal. Station 3 followed the 
general plan of station 2, but had larger and more efficient machines, 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 295 

and, in general, embodied the most recent advances of hydraulic and 
electric engineering. Its 13 turbines had a rated capacity of 130,000 
horsepower. The first unit in this plant began to operate in Septem- 
ber, 1907, and the thirteenth, or last, unit in August, 1914. In the 
meantime the company had changed its name to " Hydraulic Power 
Co." 

The Burton Act, approved June 29, 1906, and the permit subse- 
quently issued by the Secretary of War, limited the amount of water 
the company could divert from Niagara River to 6,500 cubic feet per 
second. As a given amount of water would develop much more 
power in the new electric stations than in the low-head developments 
of the tenant companies, the latter were gradually induced to ex- 
change their old water-power rights or leases for supplies of electric 
power. At present there is only one company, the Pettebone-Cata- 
ract Paper Co., which, together with its subsidiary, the Cataract City 
Milling Co., retains the right and continues to use water from the 
basin under a comparatively low head. The history and plant of 
this company will be described later. 

Present plant of Hydraulic Power Co. — On plate No. 28 is a map 
showing the location of the hydraulic canal and basin, the two power 
plants of the company, and their relation to the Falls. The entrance 
of the canal at Port Day is about 200 feet wide. This is diminished 
in the first 400 feet to a width of 100 feet at the Buffalo Avenue 
Bridge, which width is maintained to the basin. The depth in the 
tapering section varies from 12 to 16 feet. The company is now 
engaged in deepening it. In the river outside of the entrance are 
various piers designed as anchorages for wooden booms whose pur- 
pose is to prevent the entrance of ice into the canal. The company 
is now replacing these by more extensive structures of the same kind 
and is dredging a deeper channel from the canal entrance out into 
deep water. The depth of the canal itself varies considerably, the 
mean being about 16 feet at ordinary stages. The canal was cut 
through a hard limestone formation, the so-called Lockport dolomite. 
Its sides and bottom are very rough and uneven as a result of suc- 
cessive enlargements which have been accomplished by drilling, blast- 
ing, and dredging under water. Hydraulic measurements by the 
Lake Survey in 1914 showed a value of " Kutter's N " of about 0.050. 
The length of the canal is about 4,700 feet. 

The basin at the lower end of the canal runs parallel to the cliff, 
spreading out in both directions from the line of the canal. It is 
about 70 feet wide and 800 feet long. On plate No. 29 are shown the 
basin, its connections, and the power houses. From the south end of 
the basin two covered flumes about 170 feet apart and 270 feet long 
carry the water for station 2 to a fore bay under the gate house near 
the edge of the cliff. Near the center of the basin two covered 
flumes carry water to the wheels of the Pettebone- Cataract Co. and 
Cataract City Milling Co. From the north end of the basin a con- 
crete-lined canal 50 feet wide leads under the road and railroad, some 
300 feet, to the fore bay of station 3, at the edge of the bluff. 

Station 2 is a rectangular building at the foot of the cliff below its 
fore bay. It is about 110 feet wide and 165 feet long. From the 
racks and gates at the fore bay the water is led over the edge of the 
cliff and then vertically down to the power house in two steel pen- 
stocks 11 feet in diameter. The 8-foot penstock which formerly sup- 



296 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

plied four wheels in the north end of the power house has been re- 
moved. The penstocks run horizontally under the power house and 
terminate near its western wall, where they are supplied with air 
chambers and relief valves. Vertical branches from the penstocks 
rise to the nine turbines on the floor above, five of which are fed by 
one penstock and four by the other. The turbines are of the hori- 
zontal shaft type with cylindrical cases, double runners, and two 
draft tubes. They range in rated output from 2,300 to 2,900 horse- 
power each, with the total of 23,600 horsepower. 

Each turbine drives two generators, direct-connected, one on each 
side. These are direct-current machines, with a total rated capacity 
of 15,750 kilowatts. They are connected in parallel and supply cur- 
rent at 330 volts, which is transmitted to the top of the cliff, where 
it is used in plant No. 2 of the Aluminum Co. of America. 

The 50-foot canal from the north end of the basin passes first under 
a gatehouse, southeast of the railroad track, where there are three 
large gates that can be closed for unwatering the fore bay. Then, 
passing under the tracks, it makes a bend of about 70° to the right. 
On the outside of this curve are the three 16-foot gates of the ice run. 
A steel girder across the canal dips several feet into the water and 
diverts floating ice and trash toward the ice run. The canal then 
enters the gatehouse, where it forms a fore bay 400 feet long, 50 feet 
wide at one end and 15 at the other, and 22 feet deep. A continuous row 
of racks runs along the west side of the fore bay, and behind them 
are the bell-mouthed entrances of the 15 penstocks. Each penstock 
is provided with gate, air vent, by-pass, and drain. Besides housing 
the fore bay and its appurtenances, the gatehouse contains a machine 
shop, a small transformer station, and the offices of the company. All 
the buildings are of a rough-stone masonry that harmonizes with the 
face of the cliff and has a very attractive appearance. A great wall 
of the same masonry hides the 15 steel penstocks which descend the 
cliff to station 3. Thirteen of these penstocks are 9 feet in diameter, 
and the other two, serving the exciters, are 5 feet each. Station 3 is 
a masonry building 100 feet wide and nearly 500 feet long, divided 
by a longitudinal partition into a turbine room adjacent to the cliff 
and a generator room toward the river. 

The turbines, built by I. P. Morris & Co., are of the horizontal 
shaft type, with cast-iron scroll cases, double runners, wicket gates, 
double draft tubes, and bursting plates. There are 13 turbines of 
10,000 horsepower, each of which is served by one of the 9-foot pen- 
stocks. Together they total 130,000 mechanical horsepower. Each 
of the two 5-foot penstocks serves a 1,000-horsepower I. P. Morris 
turbine similar to the large machines, but having single, unbalanced 
runners, and only one draft tube apiece. They are used to drive the 
exciters. 

The draft tubes discharge into tailrace passages 18 feet wide and 
68 feet long, which run transversely under the power house, each 
race having a weir at its outer end over which the water from the 
turbine is discharged into the river, and by means of which the 
water surface in the tailrace is held sufficiently high to seal the draft 
tube. The weirs and turbine settings were constructed at such an 
elevation as to leave about 3-J feet of the total available head unde- 
veloped under average conditions. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD NIAGARA RIVER. 297 

The turbines are numbered successively from 1 to 15, beginning at 
the south end. Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 10 each have a single alter- 
nator on the shaft in the generator room. These are Allis- Chalmers 
generators of the Bullock type, with internal revolving fields, and 
they operate at a speed of 300 revolutions per minute, delivering 
3-phase current at 25 cycles and 12,000 volts. Each has a rated ca- 
pacity of 8,500 kilovolt amperes. Turbine No. 3 drives one 250-volt, 
3.000-ampere, direct-current generator at 450 revolutions per minute. 
Turbine No. 8 drives two fairly similar machines. These three gen- 
erators furnish the exciting current for the fields of the alternators. 

Turbines Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 each drive two General Electric 
Co. direct-current generators, direct-connected on the shaft. These 
machines, which are rated at 3,500 kilowatts each, operate at about 
650 volts and 300 revolutions per minute. They are operated in 
parallel. 

Along a gallery behind the generators are the gate-control mecha- 
nisms and governors. On the opposite side of the generator room are 
two galleries carrying the switchboards, control desks, and station 
instruments. The equipment on one gallery pertains to the alter- 
nating-current generators and exciters, while that on the other per- 
tains to the direct-current generators. The oil switches, reactors, 
instrument transformers, and all other bulk}?- or high-tension acces- 
sories are on the main floor or in the basement. Plate No. 30 shows 
a typical cross-section of station 3. 

The static transformers are in the gatehouse building. These are 
step-down transformers, as all transmission is either at generator 
voltage, 12.000, or at a lower voltage. Near plant No. 2 of the 
Aluminum Co. is a substation where several rotary converters are 
operated. These are fed from the alternating-current commercial 
lines, and produce direct current for use in near-by factories. The 
Aluminum Co. also has a rotary substation near its plant No. 3, 
where some of the alternating current is converted into direct cur- 
rent at 650 volts for use in that plant. 

The Hydraulic Power Co. owned no electric machinery and pro- 
duced no electric power. It owned the turbines and sold mechanical 
power to the Cliff Electrical Distributing Co. and the Aluminum 
Co. of America, The generators in station 2 belong to the Aluminum 
Co. and are operated by them, their output being used entirely in 
Aluminum plant No. 2, which is directly above the power house. 
In like manner the Aluminum Co. owns and operates the direct- 
current equipment in station 3 and uses the electric power at the 
top of the cliff in its plant No. 3. The alternating-current machinery 
and equipment in station 3 was the property of the Cliff Electrical 
Distributing Co., which transmitted electrical energy and sold it to 
many industrial concerns in and near the city of Niagara Falls. The 
transmission lines of this company were almost wholly in under- 
ground conduits, and the most distant transmission was to the 
Electro-Metallurgical Co., about 3 miles. 

Station 2 was designed more than 20 years ago, and is much less 
efficient than a modern plant would be, although there are only two 
stations at Niagara Falls which produce more horsepower per cubic 
foot of water diverted, namely, station No. 3 of the Hydraulic 
Power Co. and the plant of the Ontario Power Co. The turbines 



298 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

and the alternating-current machinery in station 3 are very much 
more up to date. While a plant built to-day would contain units of 
two or three times the capacity, these would be only a very small 
percentage more efficient than the units in station 3. The direct- 
current generators in station 3 are among the largest direct-current 
machines every built. The design of machines of such large capacity 
and low voltage involves many difficult problems. Their efficiency 
is therefore considerably less than that of the alternating-current 
machines. The use of large direct-current generators will probably 
be avoided in any future developments. 

The efficiencies of various divisions of the plant were obtained in 
November, 1914, by an elaborate set of tests conducted under direc- 
tion of the United States Lake Survey. Table 31 gives the re- 
sults, expressed in horsepower developed per cubic foot per second 
of water used, and also 'as a percentage of the total horsepower per 
cubic foot per second theoretically represented by the overall head 
of 219 feet, namely, 24.85 horsepower. The theoretical horsepower 
per cubic foot per second between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario at 
mean stage is 37.03, the head being 326.35 feet. 

Table No. 31. — Efficiency of hydraulic plant of Niagara Falls Power Co. 



Division of plant. 


Efficiency 

at best 

load. 


Horsepower 

per cubic 
foot per sec- 
ond at best 
load. 




Per cent. 

57 
75 
80 


14.2 




18.6 




19.9 







Photographs Nos. 144 to 154, inclusive, are presented as illustra- 
tive of the main features of this development, either under construc- 
tion or after completion. Explanations are given under each picture. 

A brief history of the diversions of water from Niagara River 
through the Hydraulic Canal from the time the Secretary of War 
began supervising diversions to date has been given in Section C of 
this report, and need not be repeated here, except to state that the 
present diversion varies between 7,500 and 8,500 cubic feet per 
second, and that it is expected that about 9,500 will be utilized soon 
through the use of machinery now in process of fabrication and 
installation. 

On October 31, 1918, the Hydraulic Power Co. and its subsidiary, 
the Cliff Electrical Distributing Co., merged with the old Niagara 
Falls Power Co., forming a new company named the Niagara Falls 
Power Co. This merger, unsuccessfully attempted previously, was 
brought about largely through the efforts of the War Department. 
At the time of the merger the capital stock of the Hydraulic Power 
Co., issued and outstanding, was $12,000,000, and the outstanding 
bonded indebtedness was $6,500,000. The Cliff Electrical Distribut- 
ing Co. stock amounted to $500,000, and the outstanding bonds 
amounted to $1,150,000. The new company is authorized by the 
State of New York to divert from above the falls as much water as 
the Hydraulic Power Co. and Niagara Falls Power Co. together 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 299 

were permitted to divert under State- authority, and discharge the 
same into the Maid of the Mist pool, but not farther down stream 
than 1,000 feet below present Station No. 3 of the Hydraulic Power 
Co. 

Petteh one- Cataract Paper Co. — The Pettebone-Cataract Paper Co. 
is the only other company that still retains a right to take water 
from the Hydraulic Canal. It has succeeded to the right mentioned 
previously to draw from the basin an amount of water " equal to 
900 horsepower, under a head of 50 feet." This was a perpetual 
right granted to C.B. Gaskill " and to his heirs and assigns forever." 
By an arbitration in 1884 it was decided that the amount described 
in the deed was equivalent to 189.2 cubic feet per second. In addi- 
tion, this company has leased from the Hydraulic Power Co. the 
right to a small additional diversion. The quantity now supposedly 
used by the Pettebone Co. is 219 cubic feet per second, and by the 
Cataract City Milling Co. 52 cubic feet per second. The more north- 
erly of the two covered flumes leads to the water wheel of the Pette- 
bone-Cataract Paper Co., which operates under 90 feet of head. 
Served by the other flume is a second wheel of the same company, 
and the wheel of the Cataract City Milling Co., each acting under 
86 feet of head. It is improbable that these wheels develop more 
than 7-J horsepower per cubic feet per second which corresponds to 
an over-all efficiency of 30 per cent. Photograph No. 144 shows the 
discharge from the wheels of this company, high up the gorge, and 
gives a good idea of the wasteful use of water in which this company 
persists. 

History of Niagara Falls Power Co. — In March, 1886, Charles B. 
Gaskill and seven associates organized the Niagara Hydraulic Tun- 
nel, Power & Sewer Co. which planned to develop power by means of 
deep wheel pits and a tunnel. The capital stock was $200,000, with 
power to increase it to $3,000,000. The engineer was Thomas Ever- 
shed, division engineer of the western division of the Erie Canal. 
The original scheme devised by Mr. Evershed, was to dig a series of 
inlet canals at right angles to the shore of the Niagara River above 
Port Day, and beneath the inner ends of these construct a tailrace 
tunnel running parallel with the shore and discharging into the 
Maid-of-the-Mist Pool. Penstocks were to conduct the water down 
from the inlets to the turbines which were to discharge into the 
tunnel. Somewhat later it was decided to have only two river con- 
nections, one behind Conners Island, and the other behind Grass 
Island, the inner ends of these inlets being connected by a canal 
parallel to the river and adjacent to the south side of Buffalo 
Avenue. The inlets and canal were to form a ship canal or harbor. 
The tunnel was to parallel the canal along its south side, being suffi- 
ciently below to provide a developable head of water of 140 feet. 
The intent was to plan works which ultimately might develop 
100,000 horsepower. Under these limiting conditions, and with such 
efficiencies of hydraulic turbines as were then obtained, this would re- 
quire between 8,000 and 9,000 cubic feet of water per second, and it 
appears that the tunnel was designed with such slopes and cross- 
section as to discharge 8,600 cubic feet per second. A railroad was 
to parallel the canal, and factory sites were to have transportation 
facilities both by water and by land. The mills were to take water 



300 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

from either side of the canal, drop it through their wheels, and dis- 
charge it into the tailrace tunnel. 

A little later the idea of a central power station, from which 
power would be transmitted to factories along the canal, was intro- 
duced. At first the company found it difficult to interest capital in 
the concern, but by 1889, chiefly through the efforts of Mr. William 
B. Rankine, funds had been procured and the company was prepared 
to begin operations. The name of the company was changed to the 
Niagara Falls Power Co. Dr. Coleman Sellers was retained as con- 
sulting engineer and Clemens Herschel as hydraulic engineer. An 
auxiliary company — the Cataract Construction Co.— was organized 
and given a contract for a wheel pit and tunnel. This contract was 
let April 1, 1890, and work was begun in October of the same year. 

Although work had started on the tunnel and wheel pit, the design 
of the plant was still unsettled in many essential points. Turbines 
of unprecedented size and power, acting under an unusually high 
head, had to be designed and built. Above all, the method of dis- 
tributing the power was yet to be decided upon and the necessary 
apparatus designed. To determine these important points an "In- 
ternational Niagara Commission" was established in London, em- 
powered to consider competitive plans and award $22,000 in prizes. 
The members of the commission were : Sir William Thompson (after- 
wards Lord Kelvin), chairman, English; Prof. Cawthorn Unwin, 
secretary, English ; Dr. Coleman Sellers, American ; Lieut. Col. 
Theodore Turrettini, Swiss ; Prof. E. Mascart, French. 

This commission, composed of some of the most eminent engineers 
of the time, made investigations in England, Switzerland, France, 
and Italy, and considered 20 competitive plans submitted to it. Its 
studies, which were devoted mainly to the subject of water wheels 
and their hydraulic accessories, resulted in the adoption of the tur- 
bine designs of Messrs. Feasch & Piccard, of Geneva. The turbines 
provided in the accepted design were of the Fourneyron type, twin 
runner without draft tubes, and rated at 5,500 horsepower each. 

They were built by the I. P. Morris Co., of Philadelphia. The 
method of transmitting the power still remained to be settled. Three 
methods were considered, rope drive, pneumatic, and electric. Nota- 
ble rope-drive installations were investigated. As late as 1892 the 
pneumatic transmission was receiving favorable consideration. 
Finally it was decided to use electric power, although electric gen- 
erators of the size required were quite without precedent. In 1891 
the power company invited competitive plans and estimates for the 
development of its electric power and for its transmission, both 
locally and to Buffalo. A very careful consideration of proposed 
installations led it to adopt a two-phase alternating current genera- 
tor producing electric energy at about 2,000 volts, with a frequency 
of 25 cycles per second. This was perhaps the most important of the 
pioneer developments involving the use of alternating current and 
long-distance transmission, and its adoption involved a great deal 
of courage in view of the criticism of prominent engineers. The 
generators were designed by Prof. George Forbes, of London, the 
company's electrical engineer. They were of the external revolving 
field type. They were built by the Westinghouse Electric & Manu- 
facturing Co., of Pittsburgh. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 301 

By August, 1895, the installation of three units had been com- 
pleted and power was delivered to the Pittsburgh Eeduction Co., for 
the manufacture of aluminum. A little more than a year later power 
was being delivered in Buffalo. The construction of this first power 
house was continued until in May, 1900, the tenth unit was put in 
service, marking the completion of plant No. 1. Three months be- 
fore this, work had been commenced on the construction of a second 
plant on the other side of the canal, which followed the general lines 
of No. 1. The turbines, of the same capacity, were designed by the 
Escher Wyss Co., of Zurich, and were built and installed by the I. P. 
Morris Co. They were of the Francis type, inward flow, with single 
runners and double- draft tubes. The generators were built by the 
General Electric Co. Six generators are of the same type as those 
in plant No. 1. The other five have internal revolving fields. The 
first unit of this plant was put in operation in October, 1902, and 
the last one in March, 1904. About the year 1910 the turbines in 
plant No. 1 were replaced by new ones designed by the company's 
engineer, and built by the Bethlehem Steel Co. They are vertical- 
shaft Francis turbines with single runners and single-draft tubes. 

Present plant of Niagara Falls Power Co. — Plate No. 31 shows the 
general layout of the Niagara Falls Power Co.'s plant. The canal 
makes an angle of about 125° with the current of the river. It is 
located just below Grass Island and is 1,200 feet long, Its width 
varies from about 200 feet at the entrance to 120 feet at the northeast 
end. The depth of water at ordinary stages is about 12 feet. Not 
far below the entrance a branch canal leads northwesterly to the In- 
ternational Paper Co. This tenant of the power company has until 
Tecently received water, not electric power, and this has been dis- 
charged through a branch tunnel into the main tunnel of the Niagara 
Falls Power Co. Along the northeast end of the northwest side of 
the canal stands plant No. 1. The building, designed by Stanford 
White, is a handsome structure of dark gray limestone, about 75 feet 
wide and 460 feet long. It contains ten 5,000-horsepower units. Plant 
No. 2 is a similar structure on the opposite side of the canal about 
midway of its length. It is about 580 by 100 feet and contains eleven 
5,000-horsepower units. The water from the canal enters through 
arched openings in the front wall of the building into a fore bay 
inside. Here it enters the penstocks, 7-J feet in diameter, which con- 
duct it down into the wheel pit. Each penstock is provided with a 
motor-driven headgate. It is understood that the racks which for- 
merly protected the entrance to the penstocks are no longer in use. 
The wheel pits are vertical trenches cut in the solid rock. They are 
about 17J feet wide and 177-J- feet deep. The wheel pit in plant No. 1 
is 424J feet long; that in No. 2 is 461 feet. At the bottom of the 
penstocks the water makes a right-angled turn and enters the tur- 
bines about 134 feet below the powerhouse floor. The speed of the 
turbines is regulated at 250 revolutions per minute by cylinder gates 
operated by oil pressure governors on the generator floor. The draft 
tubes discharge the water into a tailrace formed by the bottom of 
the wheel pit. From the bottom of the northeast end of each wheel 
pit the water enters a tailrace tunnel. The tunnel from No. 1 inter- 
sects that from No. 2 at an angle of 60°. From this intersection the 
length of tunnel to plant No. 1 is about 50 feet and to No. 2 is about 
600 feet, each branch swinging around a curve through an angle of 



302 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

almost 122° The tunnel runs in a straight line from this intersec- 
tion to its outlet just downstream from the upper steel arch bridge, a 
distance of about 7,000 feet. It is of horseshoe shaped cross-section 
21 feet high and 18 feet 10 inches wide, with a cross-sectional area of 
335 square feet. It is lined with brick. The bottom of the tunnel 
at the wheel pits is about 44 feet above the level of the river at the 
outfall. The slope is 4 feet per thousand for the first one-third of 
the length and 7 feet per 1,000 from there to a point 95 feet from the 
outfall. Thence it drops 10^ feet in an ogee curve, and the open end 
is about half submerged at normal stages. This last 85- foot length 
of the tunnel is lined with steel plates. 

The portal is of granite masonry founded on a hard sandstone 
ledge. The velocities through the tunnel are extremely high. When 
all machines are operating at full load the velocity is about 30 feet 
per second in the tunnel and about 45 feet per second at the outfall, 
which latter figure is equivalent to 30 miles per hour and is twice as 
great as the highest velocity in the rapids above the crest of the 
Horseshoe Falls. About one-third of the available energy of the 
water is used up in forcing itself through the tunnel at this high 
velocity, and this loss of power forms the chief reason for the low 
overall efficiency of the plant. 

The power developed by the turbines is transmitted to the genera- 
tor floor by large vertical steel shafts. These are made of steel tubing 
38 inches in diameter and three-eighths inch thick, except at the 
bearings, where they are solid and are 11 inches in diameter. There 
are three bearings between the turbines and the generator floor, each 
accessible by a deck in the pit. The weight of each shaft with the 
moving parts of the turbine and generator is about 100 tons. In 
powerhouse No. 2 this weight is partly balanced by hydrostatic pres- 
sure on a flange inside the turbine case. The rest of the weight, and 
the full weight of the moving part in Plant 1 is supported by oil 
pressure thrust bearings located below the generators, on what is 
called the "thrust deck." The generators are of the umbrella type 
and are rated at 3,750 kilo volt-amperes each. They are operated at 
250 revolutions per minute, and generate two-phase alternating cur- 
rent at 25 cycles per second, 2,200 volts. There are four exciters in 
each plant, located in small chambers cut in the rock near the bottom 
of the wheel pits, and driven by Pelton wheels. Two main switch- 
boards are installed in plant No. 1, each controlling and distributing 
the output of five generators. The main generator and feeder 
switches are operated pneumatically. In power house No. 2 the en- 
tire output of the plant is controlled and distributed from a single 
operating switchboard, switches being operated electrically. 

Plate No. 32 shows a typical cross-section through powerhouse 
No. 2. 

For the operation of near-by plants, power is transmitted at 2,200 s 
yolts, two phase. For the more distant plants in the Niagara Falls dis- 
trict it is stepped up to 11,000 volts, and changed to three phase. 
Power is transmitted to Buffalo and other cities at 22,000 volts, three 
phase. The farthest transmission is to Olcott, a distance of about 
36 miles. The step-up transformer station is located directly across 
the canal from plant No. 1. It contains 16 air-blast transformers of 
1,250 horsepower each, which change the generated energy from 
2,200 volts, two phase, to 22,000 volts, three phase; and 16 oil-in- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 303 

sulated, water-cooled transformers of 2,500 horsepower each, which 
change the characteristics of the electric energy generated from two 
phase, 2,200 volts, to three phase at either 11,000 or 22,000 volts, as 
may be required. 

Tests tty the United States Lake Survey show that about 10.8 horse- 
power are developed per cubic foot per second when 21 units are 
operating at their rated capacity of 5,000 horsepower each, the total 
diversion being 9,700 cubic feet per second. This gives an over-all 
efficiency of 43J per cent. With a smaller load the tail-water does not 
stand so high in the wheel pit, and the efficiency is greater. The com- 
pany ordinarily operates 21 units to generate about 100,000 horse- 
power, using 9.450 cubic feet per second. This is 10.6 horsepower 
per cubic foot per second and represents an efficiency of 42J per cent. 

Photographs Nos. 155 to 168 give an idea of the appearance of the 
principal elements of the plant during construction and after com- 
pletion. A brief explanation accompanies each view. 

In regard to the steep slope and small size of tunnel, with the conse- 
quent great loss in over-all efficiency, a few words of explanation seem 
pertinent. At the time of the inception of this project there were 
very few places in the world where water power had been developed 
under a head of 100 feet or more, and none where the quantity of water 
used under such a head was large. The Hydraulic Power Co. then 
contemplated developments of only 90 to 100 feet of head. The 140 
feet provided in the plans of this new development therefore indicated 
a step forward into almost unknown realms of engineering. The ulti- 
mate proposed development of 100,000 horsepower, which it was ex- 
pected would be used night and day, amounted in horsepower-hours to 
about five times the water power developed in Lowell, Lawrence, and 
Holyoke combined. These were cities of the first magnitude as regards 
water-power development, and a project contemplating a production 
of 100,000 horsepower was stupendous. At that time the ultimate 
development planned by the Hydraulic Power Co. was 20,000 horse- 
power. It was not expected that the 100,000 horsepower limit would 
be reached for many years, but, when it was, the total diversion 
from Niagara River would be only 8,600 cubic feet per second or 
thereabouts, and this seemed such an insignificant fraction of the 
river flow that apparently nobody foresaw a time when the supply 
would be limited or a more efficient use of the diversion considered 
essential. 

As already noted under the preceding description of the Hydraulic 
Power Co., the three companies, namely, the Niagara Falls Power Co., 
Hydraulic Power Co., and Cliff Electrical Distributing Co., combined 
under the name of the Niagara Falls Power Co., on October 31, 1918. 
At the time of the merger the outstanding stock of the Niagara Falls 
Power Co., was $5,757,700 and the outstanding bonds $18,226,000. 

At the time of the merger the Niagara Falls Power Co. possessed 
a right granted by the State to develop 200,000 horsepower. A brief 
history of Federal legislation in regard to diversions of water from 
Niagara River by this company, and of permits and supervision per- 
taining thereto, as well as quantities of diversions thereunder, is given 
in Section C of this report. 

International Paper Co. — The International Paper Co. buys water 
power from the Niagara Falls Power Co. Its lease gives it the right 
to receive approximately 750 cubic feet per second of water from the 



304 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

power company's canal and discharge it into the tailrace tunnel. 
Water has until recently been taken from the intake of the Niagara 
Falls Power Co. through a canal about 30 feet wide, 10-| feet deep, 
and 385 feet long. From the end of the canal the water descended 
into the wheel pit in a penstock 12 feet in diameter, from which it was 
supplied through short branch pipes to six wheels. These were 
Jonval turbines of -1,300 horsepower each. From them the water 
went through a tailrace tunnel of circular section 660 feet long and 7 
feet in diameter, entering the power company's main tunnel at an 
abrupt angle 835 feet downstream from the junction of the two main 
tunnel branches. Little is known of the efficiency of this installa- 
tion, but it was probably somewhat less than that of the Niagara 
Falls Power Co. Recently this power plant has been dismantled 
and removed. It is understood that the rights have been retained 
and that turbines are under construction for a new installation. 

3. PROPOSED PLANT USING ENTIRE DIVERSION AND TOTAL HEAD IN ONE 

STAGE. 

General remarks. — Three types of installation for utilizing in one 
stage the entire diversion and total head have been suggested. The 
first provides for a power house somewhere on the upper river, with 
water wheels installed in a deep pit, the water flowing from the 
wheels to the lower river through a tailrace tunnel. The second 
proposition calls for an intake on the upper river and a tunnel from 
it to a power house in the Gorge of the lower river. The third is 
similar to the second except that the tunnel is replaced by an open 
canal. Plans providing a combination of two of these ideas are 
possible, but seem to offer no advantages. Outline plans and esti- 
mates have been made for each of these three projects. 

Tailrace tunnel proposition. — An economic study of the location 
of this project showed that to get the greatest return on the invest- 
ment the power house should be located on the shoal just upstream 
from Grass Island and that the outfall of the tunnel should be at or 
not far downstream from the Devils Hole. Plate No. 33 shows the 
general layout of the project with the outfall near Riverdale Ceme- 
etry. The general design of the power house is shown on plate No. 34. 
A channel 600 feet wide is to be dredged in the river from the deep 
water half a mile upstream. Along the face of the proposed power 
house the channel is 25 feet deep at low water. The bottom of the 
channel slopes transversely so that the depth on the south side is but 
10 feet. For half a mile downstream from the power house all 
shoal spots are dredged to a depth of 10 feet at low water. The 
face of the power house extends along the deep side of this dredged 
cut for about 1,100 feet. It contains 34 arched openings each with 
an area of 329 square feet. The crowns of the arches are each 11 
feet below low water. Four feet above the crowns a concrete shelf 
projects 5 feet from the wall along the whole front. With this con- 
struction it is expected that there will always be a considerable cur- 
rent past the power house and that very little ice will pass under 
the arches. 

Each pair of submerged arches serves one turbine. Passing 
through any arch the water enters a small fore bay, 24 by 29 feet in 
horizontal dimensions. Just inward from the arch are slots in which 
Stop logs may be placed whenever it is desired to drain the fore bay 




Photograph No. 1 55.— MAI N TUNNEL, UNDER CONSTRUCTION. NIAGARA FALLS 

POWER CO. 



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Photograph No. 158.— WHEEL PIT OF POWER HOUSE NO. 2. UNDER CONSTRUC- 
TION. NIAGARA FALLS POWER CO. 




Photograph No. 163.— TU RBI NE IN POWER HOUSE NO. 2. NIAGARA FALLS 

POWER CO. 




Photograph No. 164.— MAIN TUNNEL OUTFALL. NIAGARA FALLS POWER CO. 




Photograph No. 165.— TH RUST BEARING. NIAGARA FALLS POWER CO. 




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CO 

O 

I 

CL 

Hi 

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Q_ 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 305 

for repairs. Beyond these is a set of racks to prevent Aveeds and 
trash from entering the penstocks. A traveling crane, running the 
full length of the building over the fore bays, provides for handling 
the heavy rakes used in clearing the racks. From the north side of 
each fore bay the water flows through a bellmouth entrance into a 
steel penstock, 10 feet in diameter. Each penstock is provided with 
a gate, a by-pass, and air vent. 

The water wheels and generators are in a deep pit. Each gener- 
ator rests at the bottom of an open shaft, 25 feet in diameter, which 
descends to the generator floor at elevation 292. For 18 feet above 
this floor the shaft is enlarged to 30 feet. The generators are of the 
vertical-shaft type with internal revolving field. On top of each 
one is a direct- connected exciter. The generators are rated at 27,000 
kilowatts, continuous maximum output at 90 per cent power factor, 
at 12,000 volts, 3 phase, 25 cycles per second. Their speed is about 
221 revolutions per minute. A longitudinal passage or tunnel, 
parallel to the main wheel pit, at the elevation of the generator floor, 
is connected to each little generator room by a short lateral passage. 
Each turbine is fed by two penstocks. Between each pair of gen- 
erator pits is a pit containing two penstocks together with the electric 
conductors, ventilating ducts, and other apparatus. By means of 
this arrangement it will be possible to conduct cool air clown the 
penstock pits and through passages to the generators — the heated air 
from the generators rising vertically in the generator pits. At the 
" ottom of each penstock pit are two synchronous relief valves, one 
n each penstock. Stairs from the passage lead to a governor room 
^nder each generator and from there passages lead to the bottom of 
he penstock shafts. The penstocks turn at right angles to enter 
he turbines, whose centers are at elevation 265. The turbines are of 
he vertical shaft, single-runner type, having inward and down- 
ard flow, with double scroll cases, and single draft tubes. They 
re rated at 37,000 horsepower maximum. Each is direct connected 
its generator, and the complete rotating part is supported on a 
ingsbury thrust bearing. Beneath the turbines is a tailrace into 
hich the draft tubes discharge. The top of this tailrace is at eleva- 
tion 248. The cross section is of horseshoe shape, 20 feet wide, 
20 feet high at the upstream end, and 48 feet wide and high at the 
down stream end. 

The building above the wheel pit contains a switchboard, oil 
switches, busses, cranes, and other machinery necessary to the oper- 
ation of the plant. Its floor is at elevation 567. Two elevators con- 
nect it with the passage at the generator level. A spur track connec- 
tion between the power house and the Niagara Junction Railway is 
provided. 

The tailrace tunnel is of horseshoe section, 48 feet high and 48 
feet wide, with a cross-sectional area of 1,970 square feet. It is lined 
with concrete. Thickness of lining and cross-sectional proportions 
are in accordance with the standards described in Part E-l. Start- 
ing from the west end of the power house it makes a curve of 800- 
foot radius, 1,280 feet long. Thence it runs straight to the portal 
below the Riverdale Cemetery, except for a slight curve near the 
lower end to prevent it reaching the river at too acute an angle. The 
total length is 26,000 feet. For a considerable distance the location 

27880—21 20 



306 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

is wholly or partially under Seventeenth Street. Its profile is level 
throughout with the invert at elevation 200. When taking the full 
diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second the mean velocity in the 
tunnel will be 10.15 feet per second. 

It is planned to deposit the spoil from the wheel pit and tunnel 
along the shore of Niagara River, between Grass Island and Con- 
ners Island, and south of Conners Island, as shown on the map, 
plate No. 33. This will form about 210 acres of valuable land for 
factory sites. Adjacent vacant land now has an assessed value of 
$5,000 per acre. 

Taking " Kutter's N " as 0.013, the loss of head in the tunnel will 
be 9 feet. The loss of head at the intake through the racks in the 
bellmouths and penstocks, in the tapering section of the tunnel, and 
at the tunnel outfall is estimated at 4.5 feet. Total loss of head is 
13.5 feet. Mean elevation of headwater is 562.5. Mean elevation of 
tailwater is 250. Gross head is the difference or 312.5 feet. Net 
head is 312.5 minus 13.5 or 299 feet. Assuming the combined effi- 
ciency of the turbine and generator to be 86 per cent, the total power 
produced by 20,000 cubic feet per second is 584,000 horsepower, 
which is 29.2 horsepower per cubic foot per second. This is equiva- 
lent to an over-all efficiency of 82.4 per cent. 

Table No. 32 is a summary of an estimate of the cost of this pro- 
ject. The total is $52,220,000, which amounts to $89.40 per horse- 
power. Estimated time of development is three years for first power, 
and five years for completion. 



Table No. 32.- 



-Tailrace tunnel proposition — Summary of estimate of construc- 
tion cost. 



Item. 



Dredging in river, hardpan cubic yards. 

Total river work 

Cofferdam, D-6 feet linear feet . 

Rock excavation cubic yards. 

Plain concrete do. . . 

Reinforced concrete - do. . . 

Building: 

Main portion square feet . 

Over racks and for6 bay do. . . 

Racks pounds. 

Stop logs, steel do. . . 

Total power house 

Turbines and generators horsepower. 

Erection and accessories do. . . 

Steel penstocks pounds . 

Penstock gates 

Synchronous relief valves 



Total equipment 

Tailrace tunnel, 48 feet diameter linear feet. 

Portal, gorge route tracks, etc 

Tunnel shafts, 25 feet square cubic yards . 



Total tunnel. 
Real estate 



Summation 

Contingencies, 15 per cent of $38,326,000 

Engineering and superintendence, 10 per cent of 
$38,326,000 



Summation 

Construction interest, 9 per cent of $47,908,000. 



Construction cost 

Cost per horsepower for 584,000 horsepower. 



Quantity. 



379, 400 



2,600 
411,000 
177,210 

4,470 

55,800 

51, 100 

1, 142, 00C 

149, 000 



629, 000 

629,000 

10, 419, 000 

34 

34 



26,000 
3i,"7i6' 



Unit price. 



$1.25 



14.40 

5.00 

12.00 

25.00 

15.00 

12.00 

.10 

.10 



Amount. 



$474,000.00 



337. 000. 00 
2, 055, 000. 00 
2,127,000.00 

112, 000. 00 

837, 000. 00 

613,000.00 

114, 000. 00 

15, 090. 00 



14. 15 

3.30 

.10 

2, 500. 00 

6, 000. 00 



735.00 
""i2.'66" 



8,900,000.00 

2,076,000.00 

1,042,000.00 

85,000.00 

204, 000. 00 



19,110,000.00 
100, 000. 00 
381, 000. 00 



Total. 



$474,000.00 



5,910,000.00 



12,307,000.00 



19,591,000.00 
44,000.00 



38,326,000.00 
5,749,000.00 

3,833,000.00 



47, 908, 000. 00 
4,312,000.00 



52, 220, 000. 00 
89.40 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 307 

Pressure tunnel proposition. — The economic location of this proj- 
ect is determined by the same factors as the preceding one, and a 
study of the limiting conditions leads to the choice of the same loca- 
tion. The intake is on the shoal just upstream from Grass Island, 
and the power house is in the Gorge below the Riverdale Cemetery. 
The general plan of this project is shown on plate No. 33, and the de- 
tails on plates Nos. 35, 36, and 37. The approach channel above 
Grass Island is the same as for the tailrace tunnel, and the arched 
wall of the intake stands just where the arched wall of the power 
house stands in the preceding proposition. The arrangement of 
arches, with their crowns 11 feet below the water surface and a 5-foot 
concrete shelf above them, is the same as before, but the area of each 
opening is 292 square feet, and there are 30 openings. Passing un- 
der the arches the water enters a fore bay 22 feet wide and 750 feet 
long. On the north side of the fore bay are the racks, in 30 panels, 
each 21 feet wide and 26 feet deep below low water. Each panel of 
racks is set between concrete piers, 4 feet thick, with provision for 
placing stop logs in front of the racks. Behind the racks are verti- 
cal steel gates, motor driven, each capable of closing the opening 
of one bay, which is 21 feet wide in the clear and 31 feet high to the 
gatehouse floor. A building, 60 feet wide and 800 feet long, covers 
the fore bay and racks and contains a crane for raking and handling 
racks. Behind the rack house the water goes between converging 
concrete walls to a vertical shaft, 50 feet in diameter, through which 
it descends into the tunnel. The bottom between the concrete walls 
has a curved profile designed to preserve a nearly constant velocity 
of about 5 feet per second to prevent freezing in wintertime. The 
bottom lining is to be bonded to the underlying rock, which latter 
is to be grouted in so far as necessary to provide against leakage 
and uplift when the basin is empty. Provision is to be made for 
draining water into the tunnel from the south portion of the intake 
basin when the gates are closed. A railroad spur track will extend 
on a fill to the gatehouse from the Niagara Junction Railway. 

The tunnel is identical in cross section with that of the previous 
proposition. It is about 25,000 feet long, and at its upstream end 
connects with the downtake shaft by a vertical curve. The eleva- 
tion of the tunnel invert at this end is 400, while at the lower end 
it is 275. Near the lower end of the tunnel a circular tunnel, 43 feet 
in diameter, branches off and rises to a " differential surge tank " 
located between the top of the cliff and the railroad, just south of 
the abandoned quarry. The tank is of concrete, 124 feet in diame- 
ter, and rises about 90 feet above the ground surface. The spoil 
from the tunnel is to be disposed of the same as in the tailrace tun- 
nel scheme. 

The power house is a masonry building at the foot of the cliff, 
after the style of station 3 of the Hydraulic Power Co. It is about 
870 feet long and 85 feet wide. Seventeen circular penstock tun- 
nels, 12 feet in diameter and concrete lined, branch off from the 
lower end of the tunnel at an angle of about 45 degrees. In con- 
tinuation of these, steel penstocks, 12 feet in diameter, enter the sub- 
structure of the power house. A penstock valve in each one serves 
as a gate. The turbines and generators are identical in capacity 
and other characteristics with those provided in the tailrace tunnel 



308 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

proposition, except that the scroll cases are single, and each one is 
fed by a single penstock. The centers of the turbines are at eleva- 
tion 265. The generator floor is at elevation 280. The draft tubes 
discharge into tailraces leading directly into the lower river. The 
busses, oil switches, and other necessary auxiliaries, are located 
along the eastern part of the power house. 

The mean elevation of the headwater and tail-water is the same as 
for the tailrace tunnel project, giving a gross head of 312.5 feet. 
The tunnel is shorter and the loss of head in it is estimated at 8.5 
feet. The loss in the intake, together with penstock losses and other 
minor losses, is estimated at 2.75 feet. Total loss of head is 11.25 
feet. Net head is 301.3 feet. Assuming the combined efficiency of 
turbine and generator as 86 per cent, the total power produced by 
20,000 cubic feet per second is 588,000 horsepower, which is 29.4 
horsepower per cubic foot per second. This is equivalent to an 
oveiall efficiency of 82.9 per cent. 

Table No. 33 is a summary of an estimate of cost of this project. 
The total is $50,803,000, which amounts to $86.40 per horsepower. 
Estimated time of development is 3 years for first power and 5 years 
for completion. 

Table No. 33. — Pressure tunnel proposition — Summary of estimate of construc- 
tion cost. 



Item. 



Dredging in river, hardpan cubic yards . 



Total river work 

Cofferdam, D-5 feet linear feet . 

Rock excavation cubic yards. 

Plain concrete do. . . 

Reinforced concrete do . . . 

Racks pounds . 

Stop logs (steel) do. . . 

Gates 

Building square feet . 

Total intake 

Downtake shaft, 50 feet diameter linear feet. 

Main tunnel, 48 feet diameter do. . . 

Tapering tunnel, 30 feet mean diameter do. . . 

Penstock tunnels, 12 feet diameter do . . . 

Shafts, 25 feet square cubic yards . 



Quantity. 



385,700 



Unit price. 



L. 25 



Total tunnels 

Rock excavation cubic yards 

Plain concrete do. . . 

Reinforced concrete: 

3|V per cent steel do. . . 

3 per cent steel do... 

Tunnel, 43 feet diameter circular linear feet . 

Roof arid incidental 



Total surge tank 

Rock excavation cubic yards. 

Cofferdam, D-15 linear feet . 

Plain concrete cubic yards . 

Reinforced concrete do . . . 

Building square feet. 

Rebuilding trolley track 



Total power house 

Turbines and generators horsepower . 

Erection and accessories do. . . 

Penstocks, steel pounds . 

Penstock valves 



Total equipment. 
Real estate 



Summation . 



2,200 

94, 500 

26, 200 

2,320 

880, 000 

102,000 

30 

48,000 



100 
25, 000 

630 

2,380 

20,900 



14, 300 
1,670 

3,310 
970 
460 



214, 900 

950 

40,950 

1,290 

74,000 



629,000 

629,000 

1,886,000 

17 



10 00 

3.50 

12.00 

25.00 

.10 

.10 

19,000.00 

12.00 



1,185.00 

735. 00 

403. 00 

125. 00 

12.00 



Amount. 



$482,000.00 



22, 
331, 
315, 

58, 

88, 

10, 

570, 

576, 



000. 00 
000. 00 
000. 00 
000. 00 
000. 00 
000. 00 
000. 00 
000. 00 



3.00 
15.00 

50 00 

45.00 

918. 00 



3.50 
90 00 
12.00 
25.00 
15.00 



14.15 

3.30 

.10 

63,000.00 



118,000.00 
18,375,000-00 
254,000.00 
298,000.00 
251, 000. 00 



43,000.00 
25,000.00 

166,000.00 
44,000.00 

422,000.00 
25, 000. 00 



752,000.00 

86,000.00 

491,000.00 

32,000.00 

,110,000.00 

6,000.00 



8,900,000.00 

2,076.000.00 

189^ 000. 00 

1,071,000.00 



Total. 



$482,000.00 



1,970,000.00 



19,296,000.00 



725, 000. 00 



2,477,000.00 



12,236,000.00 
100, 000. 00 



37,286,000.00 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 309 

Table No. 33. — Pressure tunnel proposition— ^Summary of estimate of construc- 
tion cost — Continued. 



Item. 


Quantity. 


Unit price. 


Amount. 


Total. 


Contingencies, 15 per cent of $37,286,000 








$5,593,000.00 
3,729,000.00 


Engineering and superintendence, 10 per cent of 
$37,286,000 
















Summation 


46,608,000.00 
4, 195, 000. 00 


Construction interest, 9 per cent of $46,608,000 
















50,803,000.00 


Cost per horsepower for 588,000 horsepower is 






86.40 






1 





On plate No. 33 there is shown an alternative location of the tunnel 
under Sugar Street, with a boat-shaped intake near the middle of 
the river, abreast the head of Conners Island. Details of the outline 
design of this intake and connection are shown on plate No. 38. It 
was thought there was an advantage in having the tunnel under 
Sugar Street, because the right of way might prove cheaper and 
because a construction railway might be laid along this straight 
street connecting all the tunnel shafts with spoil bank and so lessen 
the cost of spoil disposal. It seemed to be advantageous also to have 
the intake in deeper water and farther from shore and with a broad 
expanse of water on both sides of it moving with moderate velocity 
in order to insure sufficient freedom from ice troubles. The disad- 
vantages are the greater length of tunnel, more costly intake, and 
increased amount of tunnel work under the river bed. After some 
consideration it was decided that the disadvantages probably out- 
weighed the advantages, and the estimate for the alternative location 
was not completed. 

It might be noted that it has been proposed to place the head gates 
at the narrow part of the intake near the tunnel entrance, using 
only three or four gates, which would necessarily be of large size. 
It is quite possible that such a design might be somewhat less ex- 
pensive than the one presented and that the flow of water to the 
tunnel could be shut off more quickly by such gates. 

Power-canal proposition. — In designing the project for an open 
canal from the upper river to the lower part of the Gorge very 
extensive studies were made to determine the most economical loca- 
tion for the canal. The topographic map, which constitutes plates 
Nos. 13 and 14, was used. This shows land contours with 2-foot 
interval over the whole area between Sugar Street and Military 
Road, as well as along Bloody Run, and also shows about 120 rock 
soundings in this area. On this map 36 routes were laid out. Pro- 
files were drawn and the relative economy of the different routes 
determined. The cost of bridges and real estate and the annual value 
of the power lost were included in the study, as well m the cost of 
rock excavation, earth excavation, and concrete. The 3^ routes were 
well spaced over the whole area between Sugar Street and Military 
Road and involved intakes at five different points between Grill 
Island and the head of the Little River behind Cayuga Island, as 
well as three power-house sites in the Gorge, namely, at the Devil's 
Hole, Riverdale Cemetery, and just above Fish Creek. 

The adopted location starts from an intake in the river just south 
of Conners Island and runs due north (along the meridian of 79° 



310 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

01' W. longitude). As it nears the Lockport branch of the New 
York Central Railroad it bends to the west on a curve of about 2,000 
feet radius and crosses the tracks just east of the railroad yard. 
Thence it runs approximately north 30° west to a fore bay at the top 
of the cliff north of the Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power Co.'s 
transmission line and west of the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg 
branch of the New York Central Railroad. The canal begins at the 
north end of the intake almost exactly on the present shore line of 
the mainland north of Conners Island and ends at the south end 
of the fore bay, where the west fence of the railroad passes under 
the center of the transmission line. The length between these points 
is 24,950 feet. The canal bottom is given a slope of 0.35 foot per 
thousand feet, or 1.848 feet per mile. 

Studies were also made of the most economical cross section. The 
wetted section adopted is 56 feet wide and 56 feet deep at mean stage. 
The sides are channeled and the bottom left as smooth as is practi- 
cable in dry-rock excavation. It was decided that it was preferable 
not to line the bottom or sides with concrete, but to enlarge the cross 
section sufficiently to provide equivalent capacity. For hydraulic 
computations the value of "Kutters n" was taken at 0.028. When 
the flow is 20,000 cubic feet per second the slope of the water surface 
is 0.000288 at mean stage and 0.000311 at standard low water. Where 
the highest stage of water in the canal brings the water surface 
above the rock surface reinforced concrete retaining walls are built 
on each side of the canal. This condition obtains only at the southerly 
end of the route. The exposed sides of the earth cut are given a 1 
on 2 slope. On one side a 10-foot berm on the rock surface prevents 
earth from sliding into the canal. On the other side a 25-foot berm 
is provided to leave room for a roadway and transmission line. 

Starting at deep water near the middle of the Tonawanda channel 
of Niagara River, an approach channel 1.875 feet long is dredged 
leading to the intake. This channel is TOO feet wide by 12 feet deep 
at the upper end and 185 feet wide by 32 feet deep at the lower end, 
at the west end of the intake arches. The intake-arch wall is a 
massive concrete structure 425 feet long and 25 feet thick, with its 
top 6.2 feet above mean stage. An ice-diverting shelf was considered 
unnecessary, partly because of the location and partly because of 
the ice run at the power house. The intake wall is pierced by 16 
arches, each of 20-foot span, 15 feet high at the springings and 20 
feet at the crown. The crowns are 12 feet below standard low water. 
The maximum velocity through these arches will be 3.3 feet per sec- 
ond. The arches are about 1,200 feet south of Connors Island. 

Behind the arches is the bellmouth approach to the main canal. 
It is 2,000 feet long, 400 feet wide at one end and 56 feet wide at 
the other. The depth of water varies from 23 to 56 feet in such a 
manner as to give a uniform acceleration of velocity from 1.50^ to 
6.38 feet per second. On each side is a massive retaining wall rising 
to elevation 570. 

At the downstream end of the canal is the fore bay. Starting with 
a wetted section 56 feet by 56 feet, it expands in the first 500 feet to 
a section 130 feet wide by 40 feet deep, and at the same time makes 
a bend of about 30° to the right, the velocity being uniformly re- 
tarded from 6.38 feet to 5.95 feet per second. Then for 900 feet 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 311 

along the face of the rack house it maintains the same depth, but 
narrows down to a width of 25 feet. 

The rack house is a building 950 feet long and 42 feet wide sit- 
uated on the west side of the fore bay. The central 850 feet, the 
rack house proper, is divided into 34 bays by concrete piers 5 feet 
thick placed 25 feet center to center. Between each pair of piers 
is a rack structure. Entrance to each bay is provided by a submerged 
arched opening 13 feet high at the springings and 18 feet high in the 
center. The crown of the arch is 12 feet below mean stage at full 
load on plant. Just above the crowns of the arches runs a horizontal 
concrete " ice-diverting shelf " 5 feet wide. The tops of the piers 
and the main floor of the rack house are at elevation 576, well above 
the highest possible surge, account being taken of the spillways pro- 
vided. The house has the usual crane, rack-raking equipment, stop 
logs, etc. Every two bays supply water to one 15-foot circular pen- 
stock tunnel, descending at an angle of 45°. The velocity is 1.75 
feet per second through the submerged arches, 0.98 between the piers, 
and about 1.50 through the racks. 

At each end of the rack house are two similar bays forming an ice 
run. They differ from the central bays in that their entrances are 
not obstructed by arches, and that, in place of racks, each bay con- 
tains a spillway with a gate sliding vertically in a recess in the con- 
crete weir, and whose crest is movable between elevations 548 and 
576. Each pair of gates serves one 15-foot circular ice-run tunnel 
discharging under the tracks of the Gorge Route Railway. It is 
estimated that at mean stage, with a flow of 20,000 cubic feet per 
second in the canal, the discharging capacity of the two ice runs 
will exceed 5,000 cubic -feet per second. With the stage lowered by 
ice to 554, the capacity would still be about 3,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond. When not lowered for ice sluicing it is intended that these 
gates be set at an elevation a few inches higher than the water at 
Connors Island. They will then serve as surge spillways in case of 
sudden shutdowns in the power house. Before a surge could reach 
the top of the fore-bay walls the spillways would be discharging 
nearly 8,000 cubic feet per second. 

The penstock tunnels extend downward at an angle of 45° for 
about 280 feet ; then, by a curve of 240 feet radius, become horizontal 
with center lines at elevation 265. This point is reached about 13 
feet from the flange of the penstock valve in the east wall of the 
power house. The 45-foot length of tunnel next to the valve is 12 
feet in diameter, and has a steel lining. The next 25-foot length 
away from the power house is lined with concrete only, and tapers 
from 12 feet to 15 feet in diameter. The remaining 412-foot length 
is 15 feet in diameter. The mean velocity is 6.66 feet per second in 
the 15-foot section and 10.42 in the 12-foot section. 

The power house and equipment are practically the same as in 
the pressure-tunnel project, except that the center lines of pen- 
stocks and valves are at right angles to the building instead of be- 
ing on a skew. 

The gross head is 313.8 feet. The loss of head is estimated at 11 
feet, of which 7£ feet is in the canal itself. This gives a net head of 
302.8 feet. With the use of 20,000 cubic feet per second at a com- 
bined turbine and generator efficiency of 86 per cent, the power out- 



312 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

put is 591,000 horsepower, which is 29.6 horsepower per cubic foot 
per second. This is equivalent to an over-all efficiency of 83 per cent. 
Table No. 34 gives the summary of an estimate of the cost of this 
project. The total is $43,579,000, which amounts to $73.70 per horse- 
power. Estimated time of development is two and one-half years 
for first power and five years for completion. 

Table No. 34. — Power canal proposition — Summary of estimate of construction 

cost. 



Item. 



I Quantity. 



Dredging in river: 

Hardpan cubic yards. . 

Rock do 



191,300 
103,700 



Total river work 

Cofferdam, D=10.5 feet linear feet. . 

Earth, excavation cubic yards. . 

Roek excavation do 

Backfill do. . . . 

Plain concrete do 



Total intake 

Earth excavation cubic yards. 

Roch excavation do. . . 

Backfill do... 

Concrete in reinforced walls do. . . 

Reinforcing steel pounds . 



4,100 

290,000 

229,000 

28,000 

29,860 



Unit price. 



$1.25 
6. 50 



Total canal 

Total bridges 

Earth excavation cubic yards. 

Rock excavation do. . . 

Backfill do. . . 

Plain concrete do. . . 



1,934,000 

3,469,500 

261,000 

25, 800 

1,666,000 



Total fore bay 

Earth excavation cubic yards. . 

Rock excavation do 

Backfill do. . . . 

Plain concrete do — 

Reinforced con?rete do — 

Building square feet. . 

Racks pounds. . 

Ice run gates 

Stop logs, steel, for one penstock pounds. . 

By-passes 



69,000 

186,000 

11,200 

10,000 



Total rack house and ice run 

Circular tunnels, 15 feet diameter linear feet . 

Tapering tunnels, 15 to 12 feet diameter do. . . 

Circular tunnels, 12 feet diameter do. . . 

Total penstock and ice run tunnels 

Rock excavation cubic yards. 

Cofferdam, D=15 linear feet. 

Plain, concrete cubic yards. 

Reinforced concrete do. . . 

Building square feet. 

Rebuilding trolley track 



12,700 

44,000 

2,300 

25,050 

3,050 

40,000 

2,500,000 

4 

288,000 

17 



44.00 

1.75 

3.50 

.45 

12.00 



Amount. 



$239, 000. 00 
674,000.00 



.65 

2.25 

.45 

15.00 

.07 



1.25 

3.00 

.45 

12.00 



180, 000. 00 
507,000.00 
802, 000. 00 
13,000.00 
478,000.00 



1,257,000.00 

7,806,000.00 

118,000.00 

387,000.00 

117,000.00 



8,134 
425 

765 



Total power house 

Turbines and generators horsepower. 

Erection and accessories do. . . 

Penstocks, steel pounds. 

lohnson valves 



Total equipment. 
Real estate 



Summation 

Contingencies, 15 per cent of $32,281,000 

Engineering and superintendence, 10 per cent of 
$32,281,000 



Summation 

Construction interest, 8 per cent of $40,351,000. 



Construction cost 

Cost per horsepower for 591,000 horsepower. 



214,900 

950 

40,950 

1,290 

74,000 



629,000 

629,000 

1,886,000 

17 



1.25 

3.00 

.45 

12.00 

25.00 

12.00 

.10 

17,000.00 

.10 

1,000.00 



156. 00 
154. 00 
124. 00 



3.50 
90.00 
12.00 
25.00 
15.00 



86,000.00 

559,000.00 

5,000.00 

120, 000. 00 



16,000.00 

132, 000. 00 

1,000 00 

301,000.00 

76,000.00 

480,000.00 

250,000.00 

68,000.00 

29, 000. 00 

17,000.00 



1,269,000.00 
65,000.00 
95,000.00 



752, 000. 00 

86,000.00 

491,000.00 

32,000.00 

1,110,000.00 

6,000.00 



14. 15 

3.30 

.10 

63, 000. 00 



8,900,000.00 

2,076,000.00 

189,000.00 

1,071.000.00 



Total. 



$913,000.00 



1,980,000.00 



9,685,000.00 
432,000.00 



770,000.00 



1,370,000.00 



1,429,000.00 



2,477,000.00 



12,236,000.00 
989,000.00 



32,281,000.00 
4,842,000.00 

3,228,000.00 



40,351,000.00 
3,228,000.00 



43,579,000.00 
73.70 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 313 

The 6,000,000 cubic yards of rock and earth excavation from this 
project, exclusive of that from the power-house site and penstock 
tunnels, is to be placed along the shore of Niagara River between 
Grass Island and Cayuga Island, as shown on plate No. 33. This 
forms 407 acres of desirable land, and furnishes docking facilities 
for a score of ships of the size which can reach the harbor through 
existing channels. The cost of hauling the spoil to this place and 
dumping it has been included in the estimates above. The cost of 
dredging the slips, building dock walls, and purchasing adjacent 
land has not been included, because the value of the new land is esti- 
mated to more than offset the cost of these items. 

The general plan of the power-canal proposition is shown on plate 
No. 33, and in greater detail on plate No. 39, where a profile of the 
selected route is given, as well as a large scale map. Plates Nos. 
40 and 41 present outline designs of intake, fore bay, and power- 
house layouts. 

It is entirely possible that\ further study might lead to a slightly 
more economical location for a power canal and also to a more 
economical cross section. The studies leading to the location and sec- 
tion adopted were based on unit prices somewhat different from those 
finally adopted. The change in section might involve not only varia- 
tion in width and depth throughout the canal but also the use of 
concrete linings on sides or bottom and of riprap on earth slopes. 

The above-given estimates show the two tunnel projects to be 
practically equal in cost and efficiency. Operation and maintenance 
costs should also be about the same. For supplying power to the 
factories now in existence the tailrace-tunnel plant has an advantage 
in location. For supplying new factories the two stand on an equal- 
ity. Neither scheme can compete financially with the canal proposi- 
tion, which is both cheaper and more efficient. The estimated con- 
struction cost per horsepower of the power canal development is 
only about 85 per cent of that of the tunnel projects. Its slightly 
greater operation and maintenance costs leave it still decidedly 
cheaper than the others in point of cost of electric energy produced. 

There are certain serious defects inherent in the tailrace tunnel 
proposition which make it a project of very doubtful advisability 
both from a construction and from an operating standpoint. The 
construction difficulty lies in the fact that almost the whole of the tun- 
nel would necessarily be below Lake Ontario level, where difficulty 
with ground water would be almost certain to occur. While it might 
be found that water would not accumulate in sufficient quantity to 
give appreciably more trouble than in the higher level pressure 
tunnel, there is a large chance that the trouble would be consider- 
able. No allowance has been made in the estimate for this serious 
possibility. 

From an operating point of view there are two important draw- 
backs. In the first place it may be advisable to maintain a large 
pumping plant at one end or the other of the tunnel, preferably the 
lower end, and to provide some sort of emergency gates at the lower 
end in order to be able to unwater the tunnel should it ever become 
necessary. Without such equipment great loss of time would ensue 
in unwatering. With the equipment all ready, it would take some 
time to pump out such a bore. The equipment might stand idle 
for 10 3'ears at a time. The present tunnel of the Niagara Falls 



314 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Power Co. unwaters itself y because it is higher than the water into 
which it discharges, except right at the outfall. The tunnel under 
consideration in the tailrace-tunnel proposition would have to be as 
low as the tail water level or great loss of power would result. In 
the second place there is the matter of surges in a tailrace tunnel so 
constructed. These might be very serious indeed, and no way of 
calculating or forecasting them has yet been developed. Serious 
surges have never occurred in the present tailrace tunnels at Niagara 
Falls, but conditions in them are not at all comparable with condi- 
tions in a low-level tunnel 48 feet in diameter and 5 miles long, serv- 
ing units of three to five times the power. With proper draft tube 
efficiency the center of the turbine will have to be approximately 20 
feet above the tail-water elevation, and even slight variations in 
this level will reduce efficiency and impair speed regulation, while 
large sudden changes would render speed regulation impossible 
and might produce shock and impact, causing serious stresses in the 
machinery. The regulators adopted for controlling surges in open 
canals and pressure tunnels do not appear to be adapted to the 
control of such a tunnel. Regulating reservoirs in the rock near the 
upstream end of the tunnel would involve prohibitive expense. The 
estimates do not include any pumping plant or tunnel gates or any 
regulators other than the synchronous relief valves on the penstocks. 
These latter would aid considerably in preventing surges, but their 
sufficiency is problematical. 

If construction of the tailrace-tunnel proposition was undertaken, 
it might be found that ground water gave no special trouble. It 
might never become necessary to unwater the tunnel after its com- 
pletion. In operating the plant there might never be any serious 
difficulty from surges, particularly in view of the use of synchronous 
relief valves. It is believed, however, that the chances of serious 
trouble along the lines indicated are sufficiently great to make the 
project of very doubtful advisability. 

There is one important objection to the pressure-tunnel proposi- 
tion, although it is not serious. It is this: If one of the penstock 
valves requires cleaning or repairs it will be necessary to shut 
down the entire plant and drain the tunnel. The plant would then 
remain down while repairs were being made unless the job was 
a long one, in which case the penstock tunnel leading to the valve 
would be bulkheaded and the plant started up, a second shutdown 
being required to remove the bulkhead. This difficulty could be 
obviated by adopting the construction advocated by the old Niagara 
Falls Power Co. and Hugh L. Cooper & Co., of leading the main 
tunnel up to a fore bay at the top of the bank, from which water 
would be fed to the turbines in long penstocks, as in the power- 
canal proposition. Such a construction would be much more expen- 
sive and less efficient, and does not appear justifiable. Other and 
cheaper means which might prove satisfactory have been suggested 
for at least greatly lessening the force of this objection. 

The power-canal proposition presents some objections, none of 
which seem serious. From a construction point of view there is no 
particular difficulty involved, and from an operating viewpoint the 
only possibility of trouble is in the formation of ice in the canal. 
Under full operating conditions the current in the canal will be too 
swift to permit ice formation to any extent. When the plant first 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 315 

commences to operate on one or two units, the current in the canal 
will be very slow and ice may form. There is, of course, the pos- 
sibility that the plant might be shut down for several days during 
freezing weather, but this is remote, and it appears even less likely 
that both ice runs would be out of commission at such a time. The 
most important objection seems to be the presence of a large canal 
extending for miles through or near the city, with the necessity for 
bridge maintenance and all the attendant inconveniences. By dis- 
posing of the spoil along the shore of Niagara River, as suggested, 
there would not be the added objection of enormous piles of rock 
and earth along the sides of the canal. The canal would, neverthe- 
less, partially prevent the use of valuable land for other purposes, 
form a dividing line disadvantageous to street and sewer systems, 
and cause the city or the company extra expense for building and 
maintaining bridges as the city grew. 

In the pressure-tunnel and power-canal propositions the use of 
generating units of more than 37,000 horsepower each is readily 
possible. The Hydroelectric Power Commission of Ontario is said to 
have decided upon units of 52,500 horsepower each for its new de- 
velopment. The use of units of 60,000 horsepower each has been 
suggested. Such units would very likely be less expensive per horse- 
power than those included in the estimates. The manufacturers were 
not prepared to make estimates on such units. The 37,000-horsepower 
units proposed are to embody the most recent improvements, includ- 
ing either the hydraucone or an equally efficient form of draft tube. 

Further consideration of and comparisons of these proposed de- 
velopments are given in Section F-10, where the influence of such 
factors as rate of absorption of power, selling price of power, and 
cost of promoting and financing is pointed out. 

4. PROPOSED PLANTS DIVIDING DIVERSION BUT USING FULL HEAD IN ONE 

STAGE. 

The projects described previously for utilizing the full head are 
all based on the use of 20,000 cubic feet per second in a single plant. 
If this amount is to be used, there seems to be no advantage in having 
several plants whose total diversion amounts to 20,000 cubic feet 
per second. The cost of building two or more plants of the same 
total capacity would be a little greater than the cost of a single one, 
and the cost of operation would be somewhat greater. In case a 
revision of the treaty with Great Britain allowed a greater diversion 
than 20,000 cubic feet per second, it might be well to develop the 
total quantity in two or more parallel plants. A discussion of the 
proper limits to diversions around the Falls and around Whirlpool 
and Lower Rapids has been given in section E of this report. Should 
the desirability become apparent, a second plant could be constructed 
later for developing an additional 10,000 or 20,000 cubic feet per 
second. 

The canal project could easily be doubled in size when first con- 
structed, and the result would probably be a slight increase in effi- 
ciency and decrease in development cost per horsepower. A single- 
pressure or tailrace tunnel to carry 30,000 or 40,000 cubic feet per 
second seems impracticable, and the requirement of constructing two 
tunnels for such a diversion precludes any chance of appreciable 



316 DIVERSION OF 'WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

gain in efficiency or economy in such a development over the single 
20,000 cubic feet per second development. In case a second like quan- 
tity were developed later, under like conditions, the entire works 
would simply be duplicated, including a new tunnel or canal, as the 
case might be. This procedure would be more economical ultimately 
than a method involving enlargement of the then existing canal or 
tunnel. 

5. PROPOSED PLANTS DIVIDING DIVERSION AND DIVIDING HEAD. 

From the Chippawa-Grass Island pool to the Maid of the Mist pool 
there is a gross head of about 220 feet. The existing plants all use 
this head, or part of it. It is possible to use the two present Ameri- 
can plants, or one of the present ones and one new one, of the same 
head, combined with a development using the same diversion under 
the 90 feet of head in the rapids below the Falls. Any rational 
plan must involve the abandonment of the Niagara plant of the 
Niagara Falls Power Co. because of its incurable inefficiency. The 
same is true to a lesser extent of the Hydraulic Power Co.'s sta- 
tion 2. It then remains only to consider a new development, which, 
combined with the Hydraulic Power Co.'s station 3, will utilize 
20,000 cubic feet per second under the 220-foot head, and another 
plant which will utilize 20,000 cubic feet per second under the 90- foot 
head. Outline plans and estimates for such an installation have 
been prepared. In Section E-6 a plan is considered which resembles 
this one, but in which the 220-foot development is a simple matter 
of one tunnel and one power house. The scheme here treated has a 
tunnel, a canal, and two power houses. To distinguish them, this 
one will be called the compound 2-stage proposition and the other 
one the simple 2-stage proposition. 

Compound 2-stage proposition. — The hydraulic canal and station 
3 of the Hydraulic Power Co. have already been described in Sec- 
tion F-2 of this report. With station 2 shut down, the maximum 
capacity of this plant at mean stage is about 6,650 cubic feet per 
second and 130,000 horsepower. The present flow through the canal 
is about 8,000 cubic feet per second. Investigation showed that it. 
would be impossible to enlarge the canal to a capacity of 20,000 
cubic feet per second without greatly reducing the present power 
output for many months while construction was in progress. The 
demand that the present supply of power be furnished without inter- 
ruption is so important that such a course is practically impossible. 
As a new canal through the heart of the city is out of the question 
as regards both expense and desirability, the plan adopted involves a 
tunnel from Port Day. 

The general outline designs are shown on plates Nos. 33, 42, 43, 44,. 
and 45. 

An approach channel is to be dredged in the river. This channel 
is curved in plan and extends from deep water 1,300 feet south of 
Grass Island to the canal entrance at Port T>slj. It is 3,000 feet long,. 
300 feet wide, and 20f feet deep at mean stage. Near the outer end 
of this channel a new ice- diverting structure is built, consisting of 
strongly trussed booms floating between concrete piers. The Port 
Day entrance south of Buffalo Avenue is dredged to* a depth of 20 
feet on the east side and 36 feet on the west. Beyond Buffalo Avenue 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 317 

about 88,000 yards of rock are dredged from the canal, effecting an 
average deepening of about 5 feet and enabling it to carry 10,000 
cubic feet per second with a fall to the basin of only about 2.2 feet. 

Along the west side of the Port Day entrance a tunnel intake is 
built. Fifteen panels of racks are supported between concrete piers 
44 feet high, 45 feet long, and 5 feet thick, placed 25 feet center to 
center. The water enters the space between the piers through sub- 
merged arches 21 feet high at the springings and 26 feet at the crowns. 
Behind the racks are gates for use if it is desired to drain the tunnel. 
The entering water has a velocity of about 1.35 feet per second 
through the arches, 0.94 between the piers, and 1.3 through the racks. 

The tunnel forebay runs behind the rack house. It is 20 feet wide 
by 36 feet deep at the south end, and 55 feet wide by 56 feet deep at 
the north. The velocity in it varies from 1 to 3 \ feet per second. 
From the north end of this forebay a short bellmouth section leads 
the water into the tunnel, where it attains a mean velocity of 9.68 
feet per second. 

The tunnel is of horseshoe-shaped cross section 35 feet in diameter. 
The top half is a 35-foot semicircle ; below that the sides and invert 
each have a radius of 70 feet. The lining is of concrete 22 inches 
thick. At the start the tunnel slants downward at a slope of 2 hori- 
zontal to 1 vertical for about 150 feet, then makes a vertical curve 
of 125-foot radius and adopts a slope of 6 feet per 1,000. This brings 
it well below the city sewer tunnels and above the tunnel of the 
Niagara Falls Power Co. In plan the tunnel starts with a curve to 
the left with a radius of 1,275 feet. It then has a tangent bearing- 
north 54° west, followed by a curve to the right with a radius of 430 
feet. The whole length is 4,240 feet. 

For hydraulic computations, Kutter's " N " was taken at 0.013. 
This gave a slope of 0.000439, and loss of head in the tunnel of 1.86 
feet. 

Near the lower end of the main tunnel a circular tunnel 30 feet in 
diameter rises to a " differential " surge tank in the open space be- 
tween the flumes which supply water to station 2. The tank is of 
concrete, 95 feet in diameter, and rises 45 feet above the ground. 

Beyond the end of the 35-foot tunnel is a tapering section 325 
feet long. From this seven penstock tunnels branch off at an angle 
of 60°. They are circular, 15 feet in diameter, and average about 
325 feet long. They enter a power house similar in design and equip- 
ment to that of the pressure-tunnel project, but containing only 10 
units, each rated at 32,000 horsepower maximum. Best efficiency of 
these units is specified at about 30,000 horsepower. Seven of the 
units are supplied by the tunnel as described above. The other three 
are supplied from the canal. 

The intake for the three units supplied from the canal is on the 
west side of the basin, between the central mill and the Schoelkopf 
& Mathews mill of the Niagara Milling Co. The south branch of the 
basin is filled in and the north branch widened to 100 feet abreast the 
intake. The face of the intake is flush with the west wall of the 
canal. It admits water through eight submerged arches 9 feet high 
to the springings and 14 feet to the crowns. The span of each arch 
is 16 feet, the crown being 9 feet below mean stage. The piers be- 
tween arches are 4 feet thick. After passing the submerged arches 
the water flows between the same piers, which serve to hold up the 



318 DIVEKSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

roadway. Behind the piers the water enters a small forebay, passes 
through a continuous line of racks, between a set of deep reinforced- 
concrete girders supporting the racks, and enters the three 15-foot 
penstock tunnels, each 350 feet long. The velocity is 2.63 feet per 
second through the arches, from 1J to 1 between the piers, and about 
1.4 through the racks, 0.93 between the girders, and 8.2 in the pen- 
stock tunnels. There are no gates, but stop logs behind the arches 
serve to shut off the whole flow. 

The power house on the talus slope is of the same general type as 
already described in the pressure-tunnel proposition, being equipped 
with penstock valves and vertical generating units. A lower part of 
the building over the tailraces contains bus bars, oil switches, and 
other accessories. 

The mean stage of water surface at Port Day is 562 feet, and in 
the lower river abreast of the power house 343, giving a gross head of 
219. For the three units fed from the basin the losses are estimated 
at 4.5 feet. Net head is 214.5 feet. For the other seven new units 
the losses are 5 feet and the net head 214. For station 3 the losses are 
4 feet, exclusive of forebay, rack, and penstock losses, and the net 
head is 215 feet. Table No. 35 gives the power output. 

Table No. 35. — Power output of compound two-stage proposition. 



Units. 



Water re- 
quired 
'cubic feet 
per second.) 



Horse- 
power 
produced. 



Maximum 
norse- 
power 

capacity. 



3 new, from basin 

7 new, from tunnel 

5 direct-current, station 3 

8 alternating current, station 3 (only 6 operated). 

Total 



4,350 

10, 150 

2,250 

3,250 



91,000 

212, 000 

42, 000 

64,000 



96,000 

224, 000 

43,000 

87,000 



The horsepower produced is 20.4 per cubic foot per second. 



20,000 



409, 000 



450, 000 



It will be seen that the installation has a spare capacity of 41,000 
horsepower, which permits shutting down any one unit without re- 
ducing the power output. 

The estimated cost of new construction in this proposition is 
$21,183,000, which is $51.80 per horsepower, exclusive of the original 
cost of these parts of the existing plant incorporated in the design. 
Details are given in the estimate summary, Table No. 36. The esti- 
mated time of development is one year for the first power and three 
and one-fourth years for completion. 

Table No. 36. — Compound two-stage proposition — Summary of estimate of con- 
struction cost. 



Item. 


Quantity. 


Unit price. 


Amount. 


Total. 


UPPER STAGE. 

Dredging in river, hardpan cubic yards . . 

Ice protection, piers and booms lump. . 


293,000 


$1.25 


$366,000.00 
200,000.00 












Total river work 




$566,000.00 


Cofferdam, D-22feet linearfeet.. 


400 
16, 100 
47,600 


194.00 
1.75 
3,50 


78,000.00 

28,000.00 

167,000.00 


Earth excavation cubic yards 




Rock excavation do 





DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 319 

Table No. 36. — Compound two-stage proposition — Summary of estimate of con- 
struction cost — Continued. 



Item. 



upper stage — continued. 

Plain concrete cubic yards. 

Reinforced concrete do. . . 

Steel reinforcement, extra pounds. 

Racks, steel do. . . 

Stop logs, steel do. . . 

Gates 

Building square feet. 



Quantity. 



Total Port Day intake 

Horseshoe tunnel, 35 feet diameter linear feet. 

Tapering tunnel, 25 feet mean diameter do. . . 

Circular tunnel: 

30 feet diameter riser do. . . 

15 feet diameter do. - . 

Shafts, 25 feet square cubic yards. 



Total tunnels 

Rock excavation do. . . 

Earth excavation do. . . 

Reinforced concrete: 

2h per cent steel do. . . 

l| per cent steel do. . . 

Plain concrete do. . . 

Roof and incidentals 



Total differential surge tank 

Dredging hydraulic canal entrance, rock, cubic 

yards 

Dredging in hydraulic canal, rock do — 

Dredging in basin, rock do 

Widening basin, rock, nearly all dredging do 

Concrete retaining walls do 



Total canal work 

Rock excavation cubic yards. 

Plain concrete do. . . 

Reinforced concrete do. . . 

Racks pounds. 

Stop logs do. . . 

Building square feet . 



Total basin intake 

Cofferdam, D-15 linear feet. 

Rock excavation cubic yards . 

Plain concrete do. . . 

Reinforced concrete do. . . 

Building: 

High portion square feet . 

Low portion do. . . 



Total power house 

Penstocks, steel pounds. 

Penstock valves 

Turbines and generators horsepower. 

Erection and accessories.. . do. . . 



Total equipment. 
Real estate 



Summation 

Contingencies, 15 per cent of $16, 139, 000 

Engineering and superintendence, 10 per cent of 
$16,139,000 



11, 390 

980 

102, 000 

1, 005, 000 

64,500 

15 

18, 450 



Unit price. 



4,240 
325 

210 

3,328 

12, 800 



3,540 
1,500 

900 
220 
590 



40, 700 

78,700 

4,600 

8,400 

3,650 



21,800 

3,120 

1,960 

584,000 

172, 900 

8,200 



550 

52,900 

22,600 

4,200 

35,100 
14, 580 



$12.00 

25.00 

.07 

.10 

.10 

15,000.00 

12.00 



450.00 
325.00 

549.00 

157.00 

12.00 



3.75 
1.50 

40.00 
30.00 
15.00 



25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
20.00 
15.00 



3.50 

15.00 

25.00 

.10 

.10 

12.00 



90.00 

3.50 

12.00 

25.00 

15.00 
12.00 



781,000 

10 

320,000 

320,000 



Summation 

Construction interest, 5 per cent of $20, 174, 000. 

Construction cost 

Cost per horsepower for 409, 000 horsepower 



LOWER STAGE. 



Reversing taitraces, upper station 

Revenue from power lost when reversing tailraces. 



Total reversing unper plant discharge , 

Circular tailrace tunnel: 

16 feet diameter linear feet , 

10 fret diameter do 

4 feet diameter do 



1,2.50 

2,580 

410 



Amount. 



$137,000.00 

24,000.00 

7,000.00 

100,000.00 

6, 000.00 

225,000.00 

221,000.00 



1,909,000.00 
106,000.00 

115,000.00 
522,000.00 
154,000.00 



13,000.00 
2,000.00 

36,000.00 
7, 000.00 
9,000.00 

10, 000.00 



Total. 



1, 018, 000 00 

1, 968, 000 00 

115,000.00 

168,000.00 

55,000 00 



76,000.00 
47,000.00 
49, 000 00 
58,000.00 
17, 000.00 
98,000.00 



50,000.00 
185,000.00 
271, 000.00 
105, 000.00 

526,000.00 
175, 000.00 



.10 

53,000.00 

15.20 

3.40 



167.00 

105.00 

45.00 



78,000.00 

530,000.00 

4,864,000.00 

1,088,000.00 



160,000.00 
500,000.00 



209,000.00 

271,000.00 

18,000.00 



$993,000.00 



2, 806, 000.00 



77,000.00 



3, 324, 000 00 



345,000.00 



1,312,000.00 



6, 560, 000.00 
156,000.00 



16,139,000.00 
2,421,000.00 

1,614,000.00 



20,174,000.00 
1,009,000.00 



21,183,000.00 
51.80 



660,000.00 



320 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Table No. 36. — Compound two-stage proposition — Summary of estimate of con- 
struction cost — Continued. 



Item. 



lower stage — continued. 

Taper horseshoe tunnel, mean diameter 39 feet, 
linear feet 

Horseshoe tunnel, 48 feet diameter linear feet. . 

Taper horseshoe tunnel, mean diameter 32 feet, 
linear feet 

Circular penstock tunnels, 15 feet diameter, linear 
feet 



Quantity. 



Shafts, 25 feet square cubic yards. 

Total tunnels 

Circular tunnel, 16 feet diameter linear feet. . 

Shaft cubic yards. . 

Plain concrete .do 

Steel, penstock, etc pounds . . 

Penstock valve, 16 feet diameter 

Miscellaneous 



1,195 
19, 900 

665 

1,850 
31, 970 



Total by-pass 

Roek excavation cubic yards. . 

Plain concrete do 

Reinforced concrete do 

Cofferdam, D-10 feet linear feet. . 

Horseshoe tunnel, 30 feet diameter do 

Building square feet. . 

Gates, steel pounds.. 

Special machinery for gates 

Rebuilding Gorge route tracks 



140 

4,130 

640 

138, 500 

1 



78, 000 

14, 840 

630 

3C0 

240 

5, 700 

1, 030, 000 



Unit price. 



$580. 00 
735. 00 

440. 00 

156.00 
12.00 



167.00 

12.00 

15.00 

.10 

53, 000. 00 



Amount. 



$693, 000. 00 
14,626,000.00 

293, 000. 00 

289. 000. 00 
384, 000. 00 



Total siu-gc spillway 

Rock excavation cubic yards. 

Cofferdam, D-15 feet linear feet . 

Plain concrete cubic yards. 

Reinforced concrete do. . . 

Building. . ., square feet. 

Rebuilding Gorge route tracks 



N Total powerhouse 

Penstocks, steel pounds . 

Synchronous relief valves 

Do 

Turbines and generators horscpo.ver . 

Erection and accessories do. . . 

Penstock valves 

Interlocking signalling and operating equipment.. 



186, 300 

800 

36, 150 

1,060 

64, 600 



3.50 
12.00 
25. 00 
40.00 
366. 00 
12.00 
.10 



3.50 
90.00 
12.00 
25.00 
15.00 



Total equipment. 
Real estate 



Summation 

Contingencies, 15 per cent of $25,173,000 

Engineering and ^iperintendence, 10 per cent of 
£25,173,000 



Summal ion 

Construction interest, 9 per cent of $31,466,000. 



Construction cost 

Cost per horsepower for 164,000 horsepower 

BOTK STAGES COMBINED. 



Construction cost of upper stage. 
Construction cost of lower stage . 



Construction cose of entire proposition. 
Cost per horsepower for 573,000 horsepower . . 



982, 500 

10 

13 

182, 000 

182. 000 

14 



.10 

10,000.00 

5, 000. 00 

16.30 

3.50 

43, 000. 00 



23, 000. 00 
50. 000. 00 
10, 000. 00 
14, 000. 00 
53, 000. 00 
5, 000. 00 



273, 0G0. 00 

178, 000. 00 

16. 000. 00 

12, 000. 00 

88, 000. 0U 

68, 000. 00 

103,000.00 

50, 000. 00 

2, 000. 00 



632, 000. 00 
72, 000. 00 

434, 000. 00 
26. 000. 00 

969, 000. 00 
5, 000. 00 



98, 000. 00 
100.000.00 

65, 000. 00 

2, 967, 000. 00 

637, 000 00 

602, 000. 00 

50, 000. 00 



Total. 



$16,783,000.00 



155, 000. 00 



790, 000. 00 



2,158,000.00 



4,519,000.00 
10S, 000. 00 



25,173.000.00 
3, 776, 000. 00 

2, 517, 000. 00 



31, 466, 000. 00 
2, 832, 000. 00 



34, 298, 000. 00 
209. 10 



21, 183, 000. 00 
34, 29S, 000. 00 



55, 481, 000. 00 
96. 80 



For the lower stage plant two methods present themselves. The 
water from the upper stage tailraces may be collected and used again, 
or it may be turned into the Maid of the Mist pool and the water 
required for the lower plant taken independently from that pool at 
some point near the railroad bridges. The second method is ob- 
viously cheaper as regards original construction, for it shortens the 
length of tunnel required by about a mile. It also provides for a 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 321 

much more flexible and independent operation of the two plants. 
There are, however, three serious objections to this plan. In the 
winter the Maid of the Mist pool often carries enormous quantities 
of ice. The same amount of ice which passes the intakes on the upper 
river, distributed over a waterway from 5,000 to 7,500 feet wide, will 
pass this intake with a width of waterway of only 500 to 1,000 feet, 
depending on the intake location. It can be expected from this con- 
centration that ice trouble will be many times as great as in the cases 
of the present plants, whose troubles have often been severe. Ice 
bridges frequently form in the upper part of the pool, and then move 
down as a solid mass until they are broken up at the railroad bridges. 
The second disadvantage of an intake in this pool arises from the 
violent fluctuation in surface level to which it is subject. These 
changes in water surface elevation are at present more than four times 
as great as in the Chippawa-Grass Island pool. Systematic records 
of the fluctuations are not available, but the records during the 
winter of 1917-18 of a gauge maintained by the Hydraulic Power Co. 
showed a range from 336.5 to 356 feet. The range during a number 
of years must be much greater. If 40,000 cubic feet per second is 
diverted around the Whirlpool Rapids, the level of the Maid of the 
Mist pool will be lowered, the amount of lowering being greater at 
low than at high stages. At the low stage of January 28, 1918, the 
level would have been reduced from 336.5 to 330.4 feet. For a 
diversion of 80,000 cubic feet per second the level would have been 
about 323.5 feet. The third objection is that floating weeds and 
trash, a very bothersome amount of which sometimes comes down the 
river, must again be separated from the water in the second method, 
while in the first method there is no chance for a second accumulation. 

It appears, therefore, that an intake in the Maid of the Mist pool 
must be so designed as to be able to handle floating weeds and trash, 
ice jams, vast quantities of floating ice, and fluctuations of stage as 
great as 30 feet. The turbines served by such an intake will be sub- 
ject to fluctuations of head amounting to more than 30 per cent of 
the mean net head, which means considerable reduction in the amount 
of continuous power they can turn out, lessened efficiency, and in- 
creased difficulties of operation. 

In view of these facts, it was decided that any lower stage plant 
should be of the type not taking water from the Maid of the Mist 
Pool, and the outline plans prepared therefore provide for gathering 
the discharge from the upper head plant before it is permitted to 
enter the Maid of the Mist pool. 

The draft tubes of station 3 and of the new upper stage plants are 
reversed and discharge away from the river into tailrace tunnels 
which are 10 feet in diameter for the station 3 units and 16 feet for 
the new ones. These tunnels join a gradually enlarging main tail- 
race tunnel which reaches 48 feet in diameter at the point where it 
receives the tunnel from the last unit. A 16-foot by-pass tunnel with 
a valve connects the headrace tunnel with the tailrace tunnel to 
supply water to the lower plant when part of the upper plant is shut 
down. All the turbines in the upper plants are provided with syn- 
chronous relief valves. 

The main tunnel is of horshoe-shaped cross-section, 48 feet in 
diameter, side and bottom radii 96 feet. Its hydraulic properties are 
27880—21 21 



322 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

exactly the same as those of the tunnel described in Section F-3 of 
this report under the heading u Tailrace tunnel." It is 19,900 feet 
long. 

To allow the upper plant to operate at times with a water consump- 
tion greater than that of the lower plant a spillway is provided near 
the lower end of the tunnel. A basin 267 feet long by 50 feet wide 
is dug in the talus slope, and connected to the tunnel by two short 
tunnels, each 30 feet in diameter. Along the front of the basin is a 
spillway weir with 10 segmental gates, which form a movable crest. 
These gates are each 24 feet long and operate between concrete piers 
3 feet thick. The movable crest has a range of 14 feet. The ma- 
chinery for operating the crest is in a building supported on the 
piers. The spillway slopes down under the Gorge Route tracks and 
discharges into the river. With the gates in their lowest position, 
this spillway will discharge the full tunnel capacity of 20,000 cubic 
feet per second, with practically no change in head on the upper 
plant. 

The power house is just downstream from the spillway. Fourteen 
circular penstock tunnels, 15 feet in diameter and about 132 feet long, 
branch off from a tapering section of the main tunnel. The power 
house in the talus slope is of the same type as in the pressure tunnel 
proposition and has the same arrangement of penstock valve, turbine, 
generator, and draft tube. It contains 14 units each rated at 13,000 
maximum horsepower. Thirteen machines can carry the full load. 
It is intended to operate the plants with a mean tail-water eleva- 
tion of 343 at the upper station. At mean stage the tail- water eleva- 
tion of the lower plant is 250, which gives a gross head of 93 feet. 
The total hydraulic losses in the lower development are estimated at 
9 feet, of which the principal part, namely 6.75 feet, occurs in the 
main tunnel. The net head remaining is 84 feet. With 86 per cent 
efficiency of machinery, a diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second 
gives an output of 164,000 horsepower. This is 8.2 horsepower per 
cubic foot per second. 

The two plants combined have a gross head of 312 feet, an output 
of 573,000 horsepower, and an over-all efficiency of 81 per cent. 
They develop 28.6 horse power per cubic foot of water diverted per 
second. 

The estimated cost of the lower stage plant is $34,298,000, which is 
$209.10 per horsepower. For the two plants combined the cost is 
$55,481,000, or $96.80 per horsepower then available. A summary 
of the estimates is given in Table No. 36. The estimated time of 
development of the lower river plant is two and one-fourth years for 
the first power and four and one-fourth years for completion. Cer- 
tain details of the design upon which the estimate was based are 
shown on plates Nos. 42 to 45, inclusive. 

The critical element of this scheme is the operation. The upper 
and lower plants must be operated as a unit and great care must be 
taken by the use of the by-pass, relief valves, and spillway to main- 
tain a uniform flow. It must be positively assured that the open- 
ing of a circuit breaker in the upper plant will either admit extra 
water to the tunnel to compensate for the shutting down of the unit, 
or else will close the gates in the lower station on a unit which is 
using an approximately equal quantity of water ; otherwise the supply 
of water to the lower plant is likely to be diminished suddenly under 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 323 

full load, causing a reduction in speed of the generating units, with 
consequent undesirable and even dangerous operating conditions. 
Under such circumstances there is danger of sucking air into the 
turbines in sufficient quantity to cause destructive shocks and stresses, 
and there is also danger of damage to the electrical machinery. 

Because of this uncertain element of danger in operation, the Hy- 
draulic Power Co. has modified its original plans as presented in 
Exhibit B of the interim report of March 2, 1918, and is arranging 
to have the units discharge into a tail-bay between the power house 
and the Maid of the Mist pool. The tail-bay has free communi- 
cation with the pool, and ordinarily will be at the same level. It 
will discharge into the pool until such time as the down-river plant 
is constructed and placed in operation, and thereafter whenever the 
down-river plant is not drawing all the water discharged from the 
upper plant. The tail-bay becomes a head-bay for the down-river 
plant, feeding the upper end of the tunnel through two short tun- 
nels beneath the power house. Gates are provided for closing the two 
tunnel entrances, and also for shutting the tail-bay off from the 
river. The advantages of this design are, first, provision for dis- 
charging surplus water into the Maid of the Mist pool: second, 
provision for supplying the down-river plant automatically with 
water from the Maid of the Mist pool in case of loss of load on upper 
plant ; third, simplicity of control at upper end of main tunnel and 
between tail-bay and Maid of the Mist pool. The disadvantages are 
about the same as those already enumerated for the intake near the 
railroad bridges. Also the loss of head will probably be greater than 
with the arrangement proposed herein. The change will prove ad- 
vantageous if the lower stage is never developed. 

The above-described outline plans and estimate were prepared 
before the change in plans by the Hydraulic Power Co. had been de- 
termined upon. In fact, they follow the original plans of that com- 
pany fairly closely, although deviating considerably from them in 
certain particulars. All three schemes will cost about the same, 
however, and it seems unnecessary for the purposes of this report to 
change the plans and estimates here given in an attempt to be in 
accord with later developments, the designs for which are being 
altered frequently. 

The matter of surges in the long tunnel which forms a tailrace 
for one plant and a headrace for another, deserves the most careful 
consideration. It appears much more difficult to regulate surges in 
this tunnel than in the simple headrace pressure tunnel, but regula- 
tion seems easily within the range of practicable possibility, and the 
problem is far less difficult than the one presented in the tailrace- 
tunnel proposition. With the by-pass, relief valves, spillway, and 
interlocking and automatic electrical control suggested, it is believed 
good regulation and freedom from serious accident could be secured. 
As an extra precaution against possible flooding of the upper power 
houses a spillway might be located near the upper end of the long 
tunnel, so arranged as to discharge into the Maid of the Mist pool 
any part of the full 20,000 cubic feet per second when the water 
arose above an elevation of about 355. The desirability of the use 
of a differential surge tank at the downstream end of this tunnel, 
with consequent modification of or elimination of the spillway herein 
provided, deserves careful study. 



324 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 
6. PROPOSED PLANTS USING FULL DIVERSION BUT DIVIDING HEAD. 

Simple two-stage proposition. — An outline design and estimate 
was made for an installation to use a diversion of 20,000 cubic feet 
per second in two stages, there being only one power house for each 
stage. The studies already referred to in Section F-5 determined that 
it should be a self-contained system without connection to the Maid 
of the Mist pool. Plate No. 33 shows the general layout of the 
project. In this proposed development an approach channel is to be 
dredged in the river similar to the one in the tailrace tunnel propo- 
sition Section F-3, but extending downstream to Grass Island. On 
Grass Island is built an intake exactly like the one described in the 
pressure-tunnel proposition. A 48-foot tunnel 8,500 feet long, simi- 
lar to those already described, leads to a point in the Gorge near the 
car barns of the Gorge Route Railway. The tunnel passes just south 
of the wheel pit of station No. 2 of the Niagara Falls Power Co., 
and 30 to 40 feet above the tailrace tunnels leading from the turbines 
of this company and the International Paper Co. At the lower end 
of the tunnel, between the New York Central and Gorge Route 
tracks, is a differential surge tank 105 feet in diameter and 90 feet 
high. Fifteen penstock tunnels, each 15 feet in diameter, branch 
off from a tapering section of tunnel in the usual manner. Entering 
the power house the water passes through penstock valves and tur- 
bines and discharges into a tailrace tunnel running longitudinally 
under the power house as in the tailr ace-tunnel proposition. Fifty 
feet downstream from the power house a 500- foot length of the tail- 
race tunnel is opened up to the surface of the talus slope to form a 
temporary spillway so that the upper plant can be used alone during 
the construction of the downstream plant. 

The 15 units installed in this plant are rated at 32,000 maximum 
horsepower. They are to be vertical-shaft machines of the general 
type and characteristics already described for the upper station of 
the compound two-stage development. 

When this plant is running independently the gross head is 215.25 
feet. The total losses are estimated at 7 feet, of which 3.25 feet occur 
in the main tunnel. The net head is 208.25 feet, and power output 
460,000 horsepower, or 20.3 horsepower per cubic foot per second. 

The cost is estimated at $31,528,000, which is $77.70 per horse- 
power. A summary of the estimate is to be found in Table No. 37. 

The lower stage development is exactly like that described in Sec- 
tion F-5 for the compound two-stage proposition, except that the 
length of the 48-foot tunnel is only 17,200 feet from the downstream 
end of the temporary spillway, or 17,750 feet from the power house. 
Considering the upper and lower developments as a unit the gross 
head is 312.25 feet and the total losses 14.75 feet, of which 3.25 feet 
occurs in the upper tunnel and 6 in the lower. The net head is 
297.5 feet; power output, 580,000 horsepower, or 29 horsepower per 
cubic foot per second ; and overall efficiency 81.9 per cent. The cost 
of the two plants is estimated at $61,227,000, which is $105.60 per 
horsepower. Table No. 37 contains the estimate summary. Certain 
details of the design upon which the estimate was based are shown 
on plates Nos. 46 to 48, inclusive. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 325 

The estimated time of development is two years for the first power 
and four and one-half years for completion of the upper plant ; and, 
measuring from the commencing of the lower plant, two years for 
the first power from it and four and one-fourth years for its com- 
pletion. 

The difficulties in operating this plant would be much the same as 
in the case of the compound two-stage proposition, as already de- 
scribed in Section F-5. 

Table No. 37. — Simple two-stage proposition — Summary of estimate of construc- 
tion cost. 

UPPER STAGE. 



Item. 



Dredging in river, hardpan cubic yards . 



Total river work 

Cofferdam, P-5 feet linear feet. 

Rock excavation cubic yards. 

Plain concrete do... 

Reinforced concrete do. . . 

Racks pounds. 

Stop logs (steel) do. . . 

Gates 

Building square feet. 



Quantity. 



835, 700 



Unit price. 



SI. 25 



Total intake 

i fain tunn el , 48 feet diameter linear feet . 

Tapering tunnel, 32 feet mean diameter do. . . 

Shafts, 25 feet square cubic yards. 

Penstock tunnels, 15 feet diameter linear feet. 

Downtake shaft, 50 feet diameter do. . . 

Tailrace tunnel, 48 feet diameter do. . . 



Total tunnels 

Rock excavation cubic yards . 

Reinforced concrete: 

2 percent steel do.. . 

3\ percent steel do... 

Plain concrete do. .. 

Tunnel connection, 43 feet diameter linear feet. 

Roof and miscellaneous 



2,200 

94,500 

26, 220 

2,320 

880, 000 

102, 000 

30 

48,000 



8,500 

700 

16, 200 

3, 525 

96 

50 



12, 700 

1,100 

2,780 

930 

145 



10.00 

3.50 

12. 00 

25. 00 

.10 

.10 

19, 000. 00 

12.00 



735,00 
440. 00 
12.00 
157. 00 
1, 185. 00 
735. 00 



Amount. 



$1, 045, 000. 00 



22, 
331, 
315, 

58, 

88, 

10, 

570, 

576, 



00O.00 
000.00 
000. 00 
000. 00 
000.00 
000.00 
000. 00 
000. 00 



Total surge tank 

Rock exca\ ation cubic yards. 

Plain concrete do. - . 

Building: 

Over generating units square feet. 

Over valves do. . . 



Total power house 

Rock exca\ ation cubic yards. 

Plain concrete do... 



Total temporary spillway 

Penstocks and draft tubes (steel) pounds. 

Turbines and generators horsepower. 

Erection and accessories do. . . 

Penstock vah es 

Synchronous relief valves 



Total equipment. 
Real estate 



Summation 

Contingencies, 15 per cent of $23,572,000 

Engineering and superintendence, 10 per cent of 
$23,572,000 



Summation 

Construction interest, 7 percent of $29,465,000. 



Construction cost 

Cost per horsepower for 406,000 horsepower is. 



140, 500 
48,080 

40,600 
27,300 



3.00 

35. 00 

47.50 

15.00 

915. 00 



5, 248, 000. 00 
308, 000. 00 
194, 000. 00 
553, 000. 00 
114, 000. 00 
37,000.00 



3.50 
12.00 



15.00 
12.00 



38, 000. 00 

38, 000. 00 
132, 000. 00 

14, 000. 00 
133, 000. 00 

15, 000. 00 



492, 000. 00 
577, 000. 00 

609, 000. 00 
328, 000. 00 



119,200 
4,600 



3.50 
15. 00 



2, 070, 000 

480,000 

480,000 

15 

15 



.10 

15. 20 

3.40 

53, 000. 00 

10, 000. 00 



417, 000. 00 
69, 000. 00 



207, 000. 00 

7,296,000.00 

1,632,000.00 

795, 000. 00 

150, 000. 00 



Total. 



$1, 045, 000. 00 



1,970,000.00 



7, 454, 000. 00 



370, 000. 00 



2, 006, 000. 00 



486, 000. 00 



10, 080, 000. 00 
161, 000. 00 



23, 572, 000. 00 
3, 536, 000. 00 

2,357,000.00 



29, 465, 000. 00 
2, 063, 000. 00 



31, 52S, 000. 00 
77.70 



326 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 



Table No. 37. — Simple two-stage proposition — Summary of estimate of construc- 
tion cost — Continued. 

LOWER STAGE. 



Item. 



Plain concrete cubic yards . . 

Filling temporary spillway 

Revenue from power lost when closing spillway 



Total cost of closing spillway 

Main tunnel, 48 feet diameter linear feet . 

Taper tunnel, mean diameter 32 feet do . . . 

Circular penstock tunnels, 15 feet diameter... do. . . 
Shafts, 25 feet square cubic yards. 



Total tunnels 

Cimilar tunnel, 16 feet diameter linear feet . 

Shaft cubic yards . 

Plain concrete do . . . 

Steel, penstock, etc pounds . 

Penstock valve, 16 feet diameter 

Miscellaneous 



Total by-pass 

Rock excavation cubic yards . 

Plain concrete do . . . 

Reinforced concrete do . . . 

Cofferdam,D=10 feet linear feet. 

Horseshoe tunnel, 30 feet diameter do. . . 

Building square feet . 

Gates, steel pounds . 

Special machinery for gates 

Rebuilding Gorge Route tracks 



Total surge spillway 

Rock excavation cubic yards . 

Cofferdam, D=15 feet linear feet. 

Plain concrete cubic yards. 

Reinforced concrete do . . . 

Building square feet . 

Rebuilding Gorge Route tracks 



Total power house 

Penstocks, steel pounds . . 

S ynchronous relief valves 

Turbines and generators horsepower . . 

Erection and accessories do 

Penstock valves 

Interlocking signaling and operating equipment 



Total equipment . 
Real estate 



Summation 

Contingencies, 15 per cent of $21,099,000 

Engineering and superintendence, 10 per cent of 
821,999,000 



Summation 

Construction interest, 8 per cent of $27,499,000. 



Construction cost 

Cost per horsepower for 174,000 horsepower. 



Quantity. Unit price 



4, 600 



17, 200 

665 

1,850 

31, 970 



300 

4,130 

640 

138, 500 

1 



$15. 00 



735.00 

440. 00 

156.00 

12.00 



167. 00 

12.00 

15. 00 

.10 

53, 000. 00 



78,000 

14, 840 

630 

300 

240 

5,700 

1,030,000 



186,300 

800 

36, 150 

1,060 

64, 600 



982, 500 

15 

182,000 

182,000 

14 



3.50 
12.00 
25.00 
40.00 
366. 00 
12.00 
.10 



3.50 
90.00 
12.00 
25.00 
15. 00 



.10 

10, 000. 00 

16.30 

3.50 

43, 000. 00 



Amount. 



$69,000.00 
100, 000. 00 
500, 000. 00 



12,642,000.00 
293, 000. 00 
289, 000. 00 
384,000.00 



50,000.00 
50, 000. 00 
10, 000. 00 
14, 000. 00 
53, 000. 00 
5, 000. 00 



273, 000. 00 

178, 000. 00 

16, 000. 00 

12,000.00 

88, 000. 00 

68, 000. 00 

103, 000. 00 

50,000.00 

2,000.00 



652, 000. 00 
72,000.00 

434, 000. 00 
26, 000. 00 

969,000.00 
5,000.00 



98, 000. 00 

150, 000. 00 

2,967,000.00 

637,000.00 

602, 000. 00 

50,000.00 



Total. 



$669, 000. 00 



13,608,000.00 



182,000.00 



790, 000. 00 



2,158,000.00 



4,504,000.00 
88, 000. 00 



21, 999, 000. 00 
?, 300, 000. 00 

2,200,000.00 



27, 499, 000. 00 
2, 200, 000. 00 



29,699,000.00 
170. 70 



BOTH STAGES COMBINED. 

Construction cost of upper stage $31, 528, 000. 00 

Construction cost of lower stage 29. 699, 000. 00 

Construction cost of entire proposition 61, 227, 000. 00 

Cost prr horsepower for 580,000 horseDower 105. 60 



7. POWER DEVELOPMENT COMBINED WITH SHIP CANAL. 

The investigations of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, 
made July, 1897-June, 1900, and reported in House of Representa- 
tives Document No. 149, Fifty-sixth Congress, second session, estab- 
lished the La Salle-Lewiston route as the most economical and satis- 
factory general location for a ship canal between Lake Erie and Lake 
Ontario, on the United States side of the international boundary. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 327 

After careful study of the report of this board, and reconnaissance 
of the terrain lying between the two lakes and from the Niagara 
River eastward to Lockport, it was decided that there is no reason 
apparent why this superiority does not still exist. The identical 
alignment adopted by the board was assumed as a basis for the esti- 
mates here given, although it was thought further study might lead 
to selection of a slightly different alignment, particularly in the 
vicinity of La Salle. A considerably more spacious and commodious 
entrance from Niagara River into the head of the canal than that 
herein provided might be desirable, in order to minimize difficulties 
and dangers to vessels navigating the entrance. The number, ar- 
rangement, and location of locks was likewise taken the same as in 
the plans presented by the board, although it was realized that the 
tendency of recent design is, toward fewer locks and higher lifts, 
and that more extended and detailed study might demonstrate the 
desirability of fewer locks in this instance. 

The canal cross-section in rock cut, as recommended by the board, 
was 240 feet wide and 21 feet deep. It was designed for use by 
boats 480 feet long, 52 feet beam, and 19 feet draft, this being the 
size of boat then considered most economical for lake service where 
limiting channels were 21 feet deep. The largest vessel then exist- 
ing on the Great Lakes, the freight steamer John W. Gates, was 478 
feet long, 52 feet beam, and 30 feet molded depth. The steam freight 
vessel, W. Grant Morden, now the largest boat in commission on the 
Lakes is 625 feet long, 59 feet beam, and 32 feet molded depth. A 
number of other lake freighters over 600 feet long have a beam of 
64 feet. At present the draft of these boats is limited by the depths 
available in certain dredged channels, and varies from 19 feet to 21 
feet, depending on lake stages, for navigation between Lake Erie 
and the upper lakes. At present the limiting depths are to be found 
in the Grosse Pointe Channel at the foot of Lake St. Clair. There 
the depth is 20 feet below the low water datum plane, which is at 
elevation 573.8. In deep water these large freighters could load 
several feet deeper. The size of the locks and channels of the St. 
Lawrence River Canals, and the present Welland Canal, limits the 
size of vessels plying between Lake Ontario ports and Lake Erie, 
or the Atlantic Ocean, to 255 feet length, 43 feet beam, and 14 feet 
draft. 

For the needs of navigation only a canal width of 200 feet is pro- 
posed, this being the width of the new Welland Canal, now under 
construction, and also of the Black Rock Canal, except on curves, 
where it is wider. The depth should be equal to the depth provided 
in the new Welland Locks, namely, 30 feet. From the point of view 
of navigation, a ship canal connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario has 
been discussed in Section A of this report. The following para- 
graphs treat of a ship canal combined with a power development. 

In carrying 20,000 cubic feet of water per second for power devel- 
opment through a canal 200 feet wide and 30 feet deep a mean cur- 
rent velocity of 3.33 feet per second, or 2.3 miles per hour, would 
prevail, and this would be increased at times when the upper locks 
were being filled. A perfectly satisfactory canal might be 300 feet 
wide and 40 feet deep, or 400 feet wide and 30 feet deep. Such a 
canal would pass a flow of 20,000 cubic feet per second, with a mean 
velocity of 1.67 feet per second, or 1.14 miles per hour. At the La 



328 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Salle entrance a canal section 400 feet wide and 30 feet deep is both 
more commodious for vessels entering and more economical of con- 
struction than a section 300 feet wide and 40 feet deep. At station 
930 of the deep-waterways route it becomes more economical to 
construct the section 300 feet wide and 40 feet deep, because of the 
heavy overburden of solid rock. The 300-foot width is superior in 
this point of economy from this point to the locks. A slight economy 
might be effected by narrowing to 300 feet before reaching the rail- 
road bridges in La Salle, but this is doubtful, and the extra width 
is desirable where bridges are clustered so closely together. The sec- 
tion finally adopted is 400 feet wide and 30 feet deep below elevation 
561 (which is 1.5 feet below standard low water at Cayuga Island) 
from the river entrance to station 926. In the next 800 feet it nar- 
rows 100 feet and deepens 10 feet. From station 934 to station 
1166 it is 300 feet wide and 40 feet deep. In the next 800 feet it 
changes to 400 feet width and 30 feet depth, and thence it maintains 
these dimensions to station 1210, near the locks. This last widened 
portion enables vessels to keep away from the power- canal intake 
and leaves more room just above the locks for mooring, passing, or 
lying in wait. 

For the sake of comparison, estimates are also given for a canal 
200 feet wide by 33 feet deep and for a canal 400 feet wide and 30 
feet deep throughout its entire length. 

The locks were made of approximately the same size as those of 
the new Welland Canal. 

At present there is a good channel for the largest lake boats from 
Lake Erie through the Black Rock Ship Canal and Lock and down 
the American channel to the Wickwire Steel Co. docks, and projects 
have been adopted for continuing the improvements to North Tona- 
wanda. 

From the lumber docks at North Tonawanda to La Salle 9 or 10 
feet is the maximum depth. In this ship -canal project it is proposed 
to dredge a channel throughout this reach 400 feet wide and 21 feet 
deep at standard low water, corresponding in dimensions with the 
Strawberry Island channels above. 

The entrance to the ship canal is to be at La Salle, at the upper 
entrance to the Little River behind Cayuga Island. For the last 
4,000 feet of dredged channel where vessels would be turning into 
the entrance, and where a cross current exists, the dredged channel 
is to be 600 feet wide. The entrance has concrete piers on each side 
and a heavy boom that can be swung across in winter, the whole 
being designed to divert ice. The velocity in the 400-foot canal is 
1.67 feet per second, and in the entrance where the ice boom floats 
it is approximately 1 foot per second. As the river current past the 
entrance is roughly 2 feet per second, there should be no great diffi- 
culty in keeping ice out of the canal unless the river should freeze 
from shore to shore, a thing which did not occur in the extremely 
cold winter of 1917-18. 

The sides of the canal are "to be channeled in about 10-foot lifts 
in rock cut, the canal bottom having the full nominal width. At 
elevation 571, above high water, there is a 10-foot berm on each side. 
At the top of the rock surface is another 10-foot berm. When the 
rock surface does not rise to elevation 571, reinforced concrete re- 
taining walls are built to that height. Earth slopes are 1 on 2. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 329 

There is one double flight of six locks with a total lift of 242 feet, 
and one double flight of two locks with a total lift of 74 feet. The 
locks are of the design of the Deep Waterways Board modified to give 
them a length of 800 feet between hollow quoins, clear width of 80 
feet, and minimum depth of water on the sills of 30 feet. They have 
the usual double-leaf mitering gates and guard gates, and are all 
founded on rock. 

Below the locks is an entrance between diverging piers 1,500 and 
2,250 feet long, respectively. The piers have mooring facilities for 
several of the largest boats. The river below the locks has a depth 
varying from 35 to 72 feet. Just outside the river mouth, about two- 
thirds of a mile north by east from Fort Massassauga is a shoal with a 
least depth of about 13 feet. Here a channel is to be dredged 600 feet 
wide and 25 feet deep at low, water. This is wider and deeper than 
the channels in the upper river because of the violent sea to which this 
entrance is exposed in northeasterly gales. From this point on in 
Lake Ontario there is ample water for all vessels if they keep east of 
Niagara River gas and bell buoy. 

Water for power generation is taken from the ship canal about 
3,000 feet above the upper locks. Here the ship canal is making a 
curve to the right on a radius of 8,800 feet. Along the outside of this 
curve is a concrete wall of 12 feet wide at the top, 30 feet wide at the 
bottom, and 2,130 feet long. It is pierced by 35 arches of 30-foot span 
each. The arches are 10 feet high at the springings and 20 feet at the 
crowns. The crowns are thus 10 feet below low water. The piers 
between arches are 30 feet wide. This structure has been made very 
massive to resist the impact of ships that might accidentally collide 
with it, and very long so that the " cross current " produced would 
not interfere appreciably with navigation. The velocity of the cross 
current is estimated to be about 0.3 foot per second. The velocity 
through the arches is 1.07 feet per second. 

Just north of the arch wall is an ice run. This is a double weir 
having an effective length of 30 feet, and closed by two gates which 
can be lowered to elevation 545. Water and ice falling over the weir 
flow through a tunnel 12 feet in diameter to the lower river. With 
the water lowered to 8 feet below mean stage the capacity of this ice 
run is about 2,500 cubic feet per second, while at mean stage it is 
3,000 to 4,000. A small house covers the gates and operating ma- 
chinery. 

Behind the arches the water enters a basin 2,070 feet long, varying 
in width from 10 to 317 feet, it is 30 feet deep at low water. From 
the wider end of the basin, which is downstream, runs a canal which 
rapidly contracts to a wetted section 58 feet wide by 58 feet deep. 
This canal is about 2,000 feet long, and approximately half of its 
length is on a curve of 1,010-foot radius. The sides are channeled and 
the bottom lined with concrete. At the lower end it expands to a sec- 
tion 172 feet wide with a depth of 58 feet. Here the water enters the 
fore bay 900 feet long, which is 58 feet deep at mean stage. From up- 
stream to downstream end the fore bay tapers in width from 172 to 
20 feet. Along the west edge of the fore bay are the rack house and 
an ice run. 

The ice run is at the upstream end of the rack house. It is exactly 
like the other ice run outside of the arch wall in the ship canal. The 
rack house has about the usual arrangement of submerged arches and 



330 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

racks supported by piers. There are bell-mouthed entrances to 17 
penstock tunnels, each 15 feet in diameter. The flow to each penstock 
is controlled by a pair of gates, 20 feet wide and 30 feet high. 

At mean stage the velocities of the water are 1.07 feet per second 
through the outer arches, 5.95 in the central section of the canal, 1.67 
through the racks, and 6.67 in the penstock tunnels. 

The power house on the talus slope is similar to that outlined in 
the headrace tunnel proposition, except that it has no penstock valves. 
Its 17 units are rated at 38,000 horespower each, giving a total of 
646,000 rated horsepower, Sixteen machines can carry the total load. 
The gross head on this plant at mean stage is 316.4 feet. The total 
hydraulic losses are estimated at 3.5 feet, giving a net head of 312.9 
feet. At 20,000 cubic feet per second this gives 611,000 horsepower. 
This is 30.6 horsepower per cubic foot per second, aud shows an over- 
all efficiency of 85 per cent. 

In estimating the cost of the power development it was considered 
that all parts of the canal necessary to navigation were public struc- 
tures built for free public use, and that construction interest should 
not be charged against them. The estimated total cost was $198,412,- 
000, which is $324.70 per horsepower. The cost of the part necessi- 
tated for power purposes alone is $93,000,000 or $97.50 per horse- 
power. A summary of the estimate is given in Table No. 38. The 
general layouts of certain main features of the design upon which the 
estimate was based are shown on plates JSTos. 49 to 51. 

Table No. 38. — Ship canal proposition — Summary of estimate of construction 

cost. 



Item. 



Quantity. 



Unit price. 



Amount. 



Total. 



Dredging in upper river, hardpan cubic yards . . 



Total upper river work 

Dredging earth and hardpan do. . . 

Dredging rock do. . . 

Back fill do... 

Plain concrete do. . . 

Riprap do. . . 

Ice boom pontons 



Total La Salle entrance 

Earth excavation cubic yards. 

Rock excavation do. . . 

Do do... 

Reinforced concrete, 0.37 per cent steel do. . . 

Back fill do... 

Oak fenders feet b. m. 

Weirs 



Total main canal 

Earth excavation cubic yards . 

Rock excavation do. . . 

Plain concrete do. . . 

Back fill do... 

Reinforcing steel pounds. 

Structural steel do. . . 

Steel castings do. . . 

Steel forgings do. . . 

Bronze do. . . 

Ironwork do. . . 

Oak feet b. m. 

Machinery 



Total locks 

Total bridges 

Total railroad relocation miles. 

E arth excavation cubic yards. 

Rock excavation do. . . 

Concrete do. . . 



2,872,000 



$1.25 



$3, 590, 000. 00 



156, 900 

143, 200 

5,900 

26, 700 

23, 500 
38 



1.25 

6.50 

.45 

12.00 

1.00 

1, 800. 00 



196, 000. 00 

931, 000. 00 

3, 000. 00 

320, 000. 00 

24, 000. 00 

68, 000. 00 



10, 856, 000 

18, 766, 000 

6,492,000 

148,200 

803, 000 

170, 000 



.65 

1.95 

1.90 

18.70 

.45 

150.00 



7,056,000.00 

36, 594, 000. 00 

12,335,000.00 

2, 771, 000. 00 

361, 000. 00 

26, 000. 00 

40, 000. 00 



2,440,000 

5, 860, 000 

2, 936, 000 

416, 000 

6, 800, 000 

20, 830, 000 

6, 090, 000 

75, 000 

25, 000 

1, 000, 000 

180, 000 



.65 

2.25 

12.00 

.45 

.07 

.10 

.12 

.20 

.80 

.07 

150. 00 



1, 586, 

13, 185, 

35, 232, 

187, 

476, 

2, 083, 

731, 

15, 

20, 

70, 

27, 

900, 



000. 00 
000. 00 
000.00 
000. 00 
000.00 
000.00 
000.00 
000.00 
000. 00 
000.00 
000. 00 
000. 00 



28 
2,300 
6,900 
1,450 



35, 000. 00 

1.50 

3.75 

15.00 



3, 000. 00 
26, 000. 00 
22, 000. 00 



$3, 590, 000. CO 



1,542,000.00 



59, 183, 000. 00 



54,512,000.00 

7, 191, 000. 00 

980,000.00 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 331 

Table No. 38. — Ship carnal proposition — Summary of estimate of construction 

cost — Continued. 



Item. 



Circular tunnel, 12 feet diameter linear feet . 

Gates 



Building square feet.. 

Total main ice run 

Earth excavation cubic yards. . 

Rock excavation do 

Dredging rock do 

Plain concrete do 

Cribs linear feet. . 

Riprap and rock filling cubic yards. . 



Total Lewiston entrance 

Dredging Niagara Bar cubic yards . 

Earth excavation do. . . 

Rock excavation do. . . 

Plain concrete do. . . 



Total power canal, intake and forebay 

Earth excavation cubic yards. 

Rock excavation do. . . 

Plain concrete do... 

Reinforced concrete do. . . 

Circular tunnel, 12 feet diameter linear feet. 

Gates 



Quantity. 



2,230 
2 

2,250 



215, 000 
232, 000 
297, 000 
31, 800 
4, 350 
171, 000 



470, 000 

246, 000 

1, 199, 500 

73, 430 



Do. 



Racks pounds. 

Building square feet. 



Total rack house and ice run 

Circular tunnel, 15 feet diameter linear feet. 

Taper tunnel, mean diameter 13§ feet do. . . 

Circular tunnel, 12 feet diameter do. . . 

Total penstock tunnels 

Rock excavation cubic yards. 

Dredging rock do. . . 

Plain concrete do. . . 

Reinforced concrete .- do. . . 

Building square feet. 

Rebuilding Gorge Route tracks 



Total power house 

Turbines and generators horsepower. 

Erection and accessories do. . . 

Penstocks , pounds. 



Total equipment. 
Real estate 



14, 800 

96, 100 

14,800 

750 

693 

34 

2 

1, 020, 000 

70, 200 



7,565 
510 
510 



172,000 

21, 300 

66, 770 

660 

72,000 



Unit price. 



$125.00 

11, 000. 00 

12.00 



.65 

1.90 

6.50 

12.00 

160.00 

1.00 



1.25 
.65 

2.25 
12.00 



.65 

3.00 

12.00 

25.00 

125. 00 

18, 000. 00 

11, 000. 00 

.10 

12.00 



156.00 
154. 00 
125. 00 



Summation 

Contingencies, 15 per cent of $156, 492, 000 

Engineering and superintendence, 10 per cent of 
$156,492,000 



646, 000 

646,000 

2, 327, 000 



Summation 

Construction interest, 7 per cent of $39,963,000 

Construction cost 

Cost per horsepower for 611,000 horsepower 

Cost per horsepower, excluding navigation features. 



3.50 

6.50 

12.00 

25.00 

15.00 



14.00 

3.30 

.10 



Amount. 



$279, 000. 00 
22,-000. 00 
27,000.00 



140, 000. 00 
441, 000. 00 
1, 930, 000. 00 
382, 000. 00 
783, 000. 00 
171, 000. 00 



160, 000. 00 

4, 499, 000. 00 

881, 000. 00 



10, 
288, 
178, 

19, 

87, 
612, 

22, 
102, 
842, 



000. 00 
000. 00 
000. 00 
000. 00 
000. 00 
000.00 
000.00 
000. 00 
000.00 



1, 180, 000. 00 
79, 000. 00 
64, 000. 00 



603, 000. 00 

13S, 000. 00 

801, 000. 00 

16, 000. 00 

1, 080, 000. 00 

4, 000. 00 



9, 044, 000. 00 

2, 132, 000. 00 

233, 000. 00 



Total. 



$379, 000. 00 



3, 847, 000. 00 
588, 000. 00 



5, 540, 000. 00 



2, 160, 000. 00 



1, 323, 000. 00 



2, 642, 000. 00 



11, 409, 000. 00 
1, 606, 000. 00 



156, 492, 000. 00 
23, 474, 000. 00 

15, 649, 000. 00 



195, 615, 000. 00 
2, 797, 000. 00 



198, 412, 000. 00 

324.70 

97.50 



If the width of the ship canal is reduced to 200 feet, the hydraulic 
losses are increased to 6.5 feet, which gives a net head of 309.9 feet 
and a power output of 605,000 horsepower. This is 30.3 horsepower 
per cubic foot per second and shows an over- all efficiency of 84.2 per 
cent. The estimated cost is $170,000,000, which is $281 per horse- 
power. If the width is made 400 feet throughout and the depth 30 
feet, the cost is approximately $203,000,000, or $332.20 per horse- 
power. 

If the locks were reduced to the minimum size necessary to accom- 
modate modern boats, say, 650 feet long, 70 feet wide, and with 25 



332 DIVEESION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

feet available depth, the cost would be reduced by ten to twenty 
million dollars. 

~ — The time of construction is estimated to be between 8 and 10 years. 
Power development might begin when approximately two-thirds 
of the entire work was complete. 

The combined ship and power canal, with 300-foot width, is esti- 
mated to cost $19,833,000 more than the sum of the costs of a 200- 
foot ship canal for navigation only and the power canal proposition 
described previously. It is estimated to produce 20,000 horsepower 
more than the power canal project. 

It has been suggested that the water diverted from the ship canal 
into the power canal should be taken from the bottom of the ship 
canal rather than from the side, as herein planned, in order to relieve 
navigation of difficulties due to the cross-current. It has been sug- 
gested also that a power tunnel rather than a power canal be pro- 
vided between the ship canal and the power house. It is believed 
these structures would prove more expensive and less desirable than 
those adopted for this estimate, but they seem worthy of careful 
consideration in case construction of a combined ship canal and 
power development is contemplated seriously. 

S. PROPOSED ERIE AND ONTARIO SANITARY CANAL. 

The proposed canal of the Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co. 
has been described in section A, with emphasis on the navigation 
features, and the sanitary features of the company's project are 
discussed in section B of this report. 

From a purely mechanical point of view there seems to be no in- 
superable obstacle to the operation of the proposed canal in the 
summer time. The probability of serious difficulties with ice in 
wintertime seems very great. Every winter the prevailing westerly 
winds drive the ice into the narrow eastern end of Lake Erie. From 
Sturgeon Point to Buffalo the ice is driven high on the beaches, 
while a vast ice pack, heaped into enormous windrows and ridges, 
extends offshore as far as the eye can reach. It is from this shore 
that it is proposed to take 21,000 cubic feet of water per second 
through the canal. 

The estimate of the cost of this project submitted by the company 
is shown in Table STo. 39. 

Table No. 39. — Estimate of cost. 
[Submitted by Erie & Ontario Sanitary Canal Co., August, 1918.] 

Ordinary earth excavation, main canal, 46,300,000 yards at 15 cents_ $6, 94o, 000 

Soft shale excavation, main canal, 59,700,000 yards at 15 cents 8, 955, 000 

Hard shale and limestone excavation, main canal, 60,500,000 yards 

at 40 cents 24, 200, 000 

Ordinary earth excavation, barge canal, 18,100,000 yards at 15 cents_ 1, 215, 000 

Concrete in side walls, 230,000 yards at $6 1, 380, 000 

Railroad tracks, 470,000 linear feet of single track at $4 1, 880. 000 

Total 44, 575, 000 

Contingencies 5 per cent 2, 225, 000 

Total 46, 800, 000 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 333 

Table No. 39. — Estimate of cost — Continued. 

Bridges over main canal (mostly lift) including contingencies $10,480,000 

Bridges over river branch canal 708. 000 



Total 57, 938. 0OO 

High-lift lock, 208 by 650 by 70 by 35 feet, twin steel tanks 7, 697, 000 

Low-lift lock, 104 by 650 by 70 by 35 feet, twin steel tanks 6, 734, 000 



Total 72, 369, 000 

( High-lift lock will operate in 10 minutes, low in 5 minutes.) 

Entrance lock at Lake Erie to regulate level of canal 500, 000 

Seneca Shoal Harbor 4 miles into Lake Erie, made with waste mate- 
rial from excavation and concrete 3, 000, 000 

Olcott Harbor 1, 000, 000 

Entrance lock at Black Rock, for barges to Tonawanda 500,000 

Chambers and screens for sewage 300,000 

Guard lock east of Tonawanda, for barge canal 1, 000, 000 

Dam in Eighteen Mile Creek, 5,000 horsepower 500, 000 

Submerged weirs in Niagara River to regulate lake levels 150, 000 

Spreading pier above Horseshoe Falls for scenic grandeur 150, 000 

Power houses I, 000, 000 

Penstocks, turbines, and generators for 800,000 horsepower 8, 000, 000 

Transmission and transformers 3, 500, 000 

of way 2, 000, 000 

Two per cent commission sale of bonds 2, 000, 000 



» Trans 
Right 



Total 95, 969, 000 



The quantities of excavation, etc., are satisfactory, but the unit 
prices are based upon a remarkably large drop from present prices. 
A revised schedule was prepared to get an estimate of cost of the 
project which would be more nearly comparable with costs given for 
the other propositions considered in this report. The item for the 
cost of a dam in Eighteen Mile Creek was dropped, as was also the 
item of 5,000 horsepower to be generated there. The promoters are 
apparently unaware of the fact that this power can be developed only 
by the use of 500 cubic feet per second of water diverted from the 
Niagara River as now diverted by the Hydraulic Race Co. of Lock- 
port. This 500 cubic feet per second is part of the diversion author- 
ized by the treaty, and, as the present proposition is to divert all the 
treaty water through a sanitar}^ canal, no water power of any value 
would be left in Eighteen Mile Creek. The two items for a regulat- 
ing weir in the Niagara River and a "spreading pier" above the 
Horseshoe Falls have been dropped. These are matters properly 
combined with any new power project, but as they have not been 
charged against the others they will not be against this one. The 
items for transformers and transmission, and for commission on the 
sale of bonds, are dropped as all comparisons in this section have been 
on the basis of the cost of power at the bus bars, exclusive of promo- 
tion and finance. The items of excavation and concrete are charged 
at the unit prices given in Table No. 28. As hardly a suggestion has 
been offered as to the proposed layout of the hydroelectric plants, 
costs for them have been adopted based on similar plants in other 
propositions. The detailed estimates of the company's engineer on 
bridges and locks have been carefully studied, and it appears that 
the unit prices therein adopted must be almost exactly doubled to 
make them comparable with unit prices used in the power project 



334 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER- 

estimates previously given in this report. These estimated costs 
therefore have been doubled, and the remaining minor items for 
which there is very little data have been doubled also. 

The resulting estimate is given in table No. 40. The total cost is 
$401,760,000. This is on a basis comparable with the costs of the 
other propositions discussed in previous paragraphs of this report, 
although it gives the company the benefit of several doubts and is 
considered low in comparison with the others. 

The company has stated that eventually some economical way of 
utilizing the power in the 8 -foot drop from Lake Erie into the head 
of the canal may be developed, but its cost is not included in the 
estimate. Omitting this, and omitting the 5,000 horsepower from 
Eighteen Mile Creek for reasons stated above, the power output com- 
puted on a basis comparable to that of the other propositions falls a 
little short of the 800,000 horsepower claimed by the company. At 
mean stage it amounts to 787,000 horsepower, which is 30.3 horse- 
power per cubic foot per second. On this basis the estimated cost of 
the development is $510.50 per horsepower. 

In Section F 10 of this report the cost of power production by dif- 
ferent projects is estimated. This is for power at the bus bars, ex- 
clusive of transmission, promotion, and finance costs, and it ranges 
between $10 and $16 per horsepower-year. Similar computations 
for the Erie & Ontario Canal scheme give a cost of $65 per horse- 
power. It is possible that after business conditions have been stabil- 
ized on a peace basis, costs will be much lower than at present, but the 
benefits will accrue to projects located at Niagara Falls or Lewiston 
as much as to this one. 

Table No. 40. — Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal — Revised estimate of cost. 

Excavation : 

Earth and soft shale, 124,100.000 cubic yards at 65 cents $80,665,000 

Rock, 60,500,000 cubic yards at $1.95 117,975,000' 

Concrete, 230,000 cubic yards at $12 2, 760, 000 

Railroad track 3, 760, 000 

Bridges 21, 260. 000 

Lift locks 28, 860, 000 

Entrance lock, Lake Erie 1, 000, 000 

Seneca Harbor 6, 000, 000 

Olcott Harbor 2,000, 000 

Black Rock Lock 1, 000, 000 

Chambers and screens for sewage 600, 000 

Tonawanda Guard Lock 2, 000. 000 

Power houses > 5,700,000 

Headworks 3, 000, 000 

Penstocks 700, 000 

Turbines, generators, valves, switch gear, etc 18,000,000 

Right of way 3, 700, 000 

Summation 298, 980, 000 

Contingencies, 15 per cent of $298,980,000 44, 850, 000 

Enginering and superintendence, 10 per cent of $298,980,000 29,900,000 

Summation 373, 730. 000 

Construction interest, 7$ per cent of $373,730,000 28, 030, 000 

Construction cost 401, 760, 000 

Cost per horsepower for 787,000 horsepower is $510.50. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 335 
9. PLANTS PROPOSED BY VARIOUS INTERESTS. 

From time to time a great many schemes for Niagara power de- 
velopment have been submitted to the, War Department for ap- 
proval. Most of these follow the lines laid down in Sections F-3 to 
F-7, inclusive, of this report. All which appear to have value will 
now be discussed briefly. The absurd and freakish schemes, such 
as the proposal to establish overshot paddle wheels in a cave dug 
behind the Falls, will not be dealt with. 

Propositions of Hydraulic Power Co. — In February, 1918, the 
Hydraulic Power Co. of Niagara Falls submitted four power propo- 
sitions to the division engineer. The first two, which were named 
" Proposition H. P -A," and " Proposition H. P.-B," contemplated 
an extension of the existing plant to utilize 9,500 cubic feet per sec- 
ond, altogether, under a head of about 212 feet, about 60,000 or 
65,000 new horsepower being produced, The present Hydraulic 
Canal was to be somewhat enlarged. " Proposition H. P.-C " was 
practically the same as the upper stage part of the " compound 2- 
stage proposition," described in Section F-5. " Proposition H. P.-D " 
was practically the same as the whole " compound 2-stage propo- 
sition." The cost and power output of these developments would be 
about the same as for the " compound 2-stage proposition." Com- 
ment on the upper stage portions of these propositions was made 
in the interim report. 

Propositions of Niagara Falls Power Co. — The Niagara Falls 
Power Co. submitted two projects in February, 1918. " Proposition 
F-4 " of this company was for the use of 10,260 cubic feet per sec- 
ond in a tailrace tunnel development similar to the one treated in 
Section F-3, but operating only on the upper stage. The possibil- 
ity of enlarging this proposition to a capacity of 20,000 cubic feet 
per second was mentioned. This plan was discussed in the interim 
report and the conclusion reached that it would take longer to de- 
velop, was more expensive, and was less efficient than proposition 
H. P.-C of the Hydraulic Power Co. 

The other proposition of the company, "K-4," was for a canal 
to utilize 20,000 cubic feet per second under the full head. In its 
general outline this corresponds to the canal project in Section F-3. 
Its cost and power output would be similar. Studies of power ca- 
nals proposed for this locality have shown that the comparatively 
wide and shallow canal, with concrete-lined bottom, which this plan 
proposes, is less economical for this location than a narrower, deeper, 
unlined section. 

Propositions of the Empire Power Corporation. — In February, 
1918, the Empire Power Corporation submitted a proposition for 
developing power with a diversion of 4,400 cubic feet per second on 
the upper stage. The scheme was to take water from Niagara River 
just below Port Day into a canal along the shore of the New York 
State Reservation, conducting it to a point opposite the head of 
Goat Island. Here it was to enter two 17-foot concrete conduits 
running under the reservation to a power house on the present site 
of the International Hotel buildings. The power house was to have 
turbines and generators situated in a deep pit, much as in the pres- 
ent power houses of the Niagara Falls Power Co. From the power 
house a tailrace tunnel was to take the water to an outfall about 



338 DIVERSION" OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

500 feet upstream from the International Bridge. The objections 
to the scheme were stated in the interim report of March 2, 1918. 

In April, 1918, the Empire Power Corporation submitted a sec- 
ond proposition. This was a scheme to utilize a diversion of 13,000 
cubic feet per second along the lines of the first proposition of this 
company. The canal of the earlier scheme was retained, but was 
closed at the upper end, thus forming a sort of fore bay. A large 
boat-shaped intake in Niagara River is provided, about 1,500 feet 
couth of the plant of the International Paper Co. Entering this and 
passing through the racks the water plunges downward into a tun- 
nel. Passing horizontally for about 2,300 feet through this tunnel 
it rises again into the fore bay. From the fore bay it goes under- 
ground again through three conduits to two power houses similar to 
those of the earlier project, and is discharged through a tailrace 
tunnel at the same outfall. 

Propositions of Hugh L. Cooper <& Go. — On January 5, 1918, Hugh 
L. Cooper & Co., consulting engineers, of New York City, submitted 
to the division engineer 19 different propositions for developing 
power at Niagara Falls. 

Plans A, B, and C were for tailrace-tunnel developments of the 
lower stage, with diversions of 41,360, 30,980, and 20,600 cubic feet 
per second, respectively. They provide for a power house in the talus 
slope of the gorge about 800 feet above the Michigan Central Rail- 
way bridge, and a straight tailrace tunnel discharging near the 
Devils Hole. The reasons given in Section F-5 for avoiding plants 
taking water from the Maid of the Mist pool all apply in full force 
to these three plans. 

Plans D, E, F, and W are for tailrace-tunnel projects developing 
the upper stage, with diversions of 33,000, 23,000, 13,000, and 10,500 
cubic feet per second, respectively. In general these resemble the 
plan of the Niagara Falls Power Co., but the design and location of 
the power house seem somewhat less satisfactory, especially in the 
matter of protection from ice. 

Plans G, H, X, and I are for a pressure-tunnel development of 
the full head of both stages, using 33,000, 23,000, 20,000, and 13,000 
cubic feet per second, respectively. The intake behind Conners 
Island seems very much exposed to ice troubles. The large open fore 
bay at the brink of the lower gorge seems expensive and inefficient 
as compared with a differential surge tank. There appears to be 
no sufficient reason why the water in the tunnel at elevation 345 
should be raised to elevation 530 and then lowered to elevation 345 
again through expensive steel penstocks. The subterranean power 
house appears unduly crowded and expensive. Otherwise these 
propositions stand on the same basis as the headrace-tunnel plant of 
Section F-3. 

Plans J, K, Y, and L are for the same diversions used under the 
full head by means of a canal. The same power-house design is 
used as in Plans G, H, X, and I. The present investigation has 
shown that a more economical location for the canal can be found 
farther west, that a more economical cross-section of canal is ob- 
tainable and that better protection from ice can be provided. 

Plans M, N, Z, and O are for the same diversions and head de- 
veloped by a tailrace-tunnel project. Except for the cramped power 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 337 

house and inferior ice protection, the scheme is about equivalent to the 
tailrace-tunnel proposition in Section F-3. 

Plan Z was recommended provisionally, subject to very thorough 
examination of the rock along the tunnel route by drilling or other- 
wise. Plan Y was recommended for adoption in case the rock proved 
unsuitable for tunneling. 

Propositions of Mr. L. H. Davis. — Ten schemes for Niagara power 
development, submitted to the Union Carbide Co. by Mr. Leonard H. 
Davis, of Sault Ste. Marie, have come to the War Department. These 
all provide for the use of 19,500 cubic feet of water per second, under 
the full head, in one or more stages. Of these schemes, which are 
set forth in reports dated March 1 and April 1, 1918, he recommends 
schemes 5-b and 4 as the best. Scheme 5-b is practically identical 
with the canal proposition of Section F-3. The only differences are 
that the canal intake is behind Conners Island, where ice troubles 
would be greater than out in front of it, as in F-3, and that the 
canal location and cross-section are not quite as economical as the 
ones described in F-3. 

Scheme 4 is a rather complex affair. The Hydraulic Power Co.'s 
plant is retained, a tunnel 29 feet in diameter, Avith an intake above 
the railroad bridges, taking the 9,500 cubic feet per second, assumed 
ultimately to be used by this plant, extends to a power house below 
the Eiverdale Cemetery. A canal 61 feet wide and 30 feet deep 
carries 11,000 cubic feet per second from behind Conners Island 
to the same new power house. This project is inferior to 5-b, and is 
also inferior in general layout to the compound two-stage proposition. 

Scheme 5-a is the canal scheme with the power house moved down 
to Lewiston, greatly increasing the cost and slightly decreasing the 
production of power. Scheme 5-c is the headrace-tunnel proposition 
in its usual form. Schemes 1, 2, 3-a, and 3-b are ingenious attempts 
to utilize the present power plants as part of a full-head develop- 
ment. By Mr. Davis's own statement, the results are inferior to 
schemes 4 and 5-b. In addition several of them would invlove a 
great temporary curtailment of the present power output, which is 
inadmissible. 

Proposition of the Niagara Gorge Power Co. — A project of the 
Niagara Gorge Power Co., designed by Barclay, Parsons, & Klapp, 
consulting engineers, was submitted by the power company to the 
Secretary of State, in an application for a permit to divert 20,000 
cubic feet of water per second from the Maid of the Mist pool. The 
Niagara Gorge Power Co. is controlled by the same interests as the 
Niagara Gorge Railway Co., owner of the electric railway in the 
gorge. In the plan of Messrs. Barclay, Parsons & Klapp an intake 
is provided between the railroad bridges at the foot of the Maid of 
the Mist pool. From the intake the water flows through a pair of 
33-foot tunnels to a power house under the transmission-line cross- 
ing. The location of the intake, determined by ownership of the 
site, is, as regards interference and damage from ice, subject to all 
of the objections made in section F-5 to intakes in the Maid of the 
Mist pool. 

Proposition of T . Kennard Thomson. — A proposition of Mr. T. 
Kennard Thomson, consulting engineer, of New York City, was re- 

27880—21 22 



338 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

ceived in January, 1918. The engineering features are very meagerly 
described in the folio submitted. Additional facts have been 
gathered from an article by Mr. Thomson, which was reprinted in 
the Niagara Falls Journal, August 22, 1917. The scheme provides 
for a dam in the gorge at the foot of Fosters Flats, which will cause 
the water to rise and obliterate Fosters Flats Rapids and the whirl- 
pool. The whole flow of the river is to be used to generate 1,000,000 
horsepower or more. 

Miscellaneous propositions. — The Niagara County Irrigation and 
Water Supply Co. proposes to utilize 4,400 cubic feet per second by 
a canal from La Salle to the Devils Hole. The route recommended 
is uneconomically long and the power in a fall of 9 feet in the rapids 
below the Devils Hole is lost. 

Another proposition was that the State of New York and the 
city of Niagara Falls unite in developing 4,400 cubic feet of water 
per second in a project similar to that of the Empire Power Corpo- 
ration, except that the power house was to be in a cave, excavated 
under the reservation. The scheme had no particular merits. 

10. COMPARISON OF PROPOSED DEVELOPMENTS. 

Certain remarks which apply to several of the proposed schemes 
for power development have been reserved for this part of the 
report. 

For convenience of reference and comparison Table No. 41 is here 
presented as a statistical summary of estimates previously given. In 
it are the name, quantity of diversion, gross head, net head, horse- 
power per cubic foot of water per second, total horsepower produced, 
construction cost per horsepower, and time of development for each 
project which provides a complete working plant. In regard to these 
estimates it seems proper and important to repeat that they are pre- 
liminary estimates based on outline layouts which can in no sense 
be considered final designs. While a great deal of study, thought, 
labor, and care have been expended upon them, they have not been, 
and under the circumstances could not be, based on careful considera- 
tion of the multitudinous lesser details. Indeed, so many essential 
elements are unavoidably of such uncertain character that any further 
refinement appears without justification for the purposes of the re- 
port. It is believed that they are sufficiently sound and correct to 
be used without hesitation in the consideration of the important 
problem to which they apply. 

There is a possibility that the intakes on Grass Island Shoal 
provided in several of the propositions would have to be located 
farther toward midstream in order not to pass ice into the new intake 
channel of the Hydraulic Power Co. or else new piers and booms 
might have to be" provided for that company and some dredging 
done on the rock shoal upstream from Goat Island. In either case 
an important item would be added to the construction cost of the 
proposition involved. The pressure tunnel location under Sugar 
Street and the power canal intake south of Conners Island are free 
from this possible objection. 

In the descriptions of generating machinery provided for the 
various propositions individual exciters have been specified, mounted 
on the generators. This was done because the prices furnished by 



DIVERSION OF WATEK FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 339 

manufacturers of generating machinery were based on such designs. 
It is not intended to specify any such minor detail in the sense of 
advocating it in preference to another design equally good or better. 
The exciter system of the Ontario Power Co. or that of the Missis- 
sippi Kiver Power Co. is probably a little better. These involve one 
or two separate hydroelectric service units in each power station, 
and presumably are somewhat more expensive to install than the 
system specified. The difference in expense would apply about 
equally to all single-stage propositions and would affect the two- 
stage propositions slightly more. 

It will be noted that in Table No. 41 none of the power-development 
schemes which involve a reasonably low capital cost are credited 
with an output as great as 30 horsepower per cubic foot of water 
diverted per second from Niagara River. Any one of them utilizing 
the gross head from Grass Island to Riverdale Cemetery can be made 
to produce 30 horsepower per cubic foot per second at added ex- 
pense. This would involve an increase in rates or a diminution in 
return to the investors in the enterprise. The power-canal proposi- 
tion can be brought up to this output at less expense than the other 
propositions. 



Table 41. — Summary of comparative estimates of various development projects. 
[Omissions and assumptions as in accompanying text.] 



Proposition, number, and 
name. 



1. Power canal 

2. Pressure tunnel 

3. Tailrace tunnel 

Simple two-stage 

Upper stage only 

Lower stage only 

5. Compound two-stage 

Upper stage only 

Lower stage only 

6. Ship canal: 

300 feet wide, 40 feet 

deep 

400 feet wide, 30 feet 

deep 

200 feet wide, 33 feet 

deep 

Portion of works of 300 
foot canal necessi- 
tated by the power 
development 

7. Erie and Ontario Sani- 

tary Canal 



Total 
diver- 
sion, 
cubic 
feet 
per 
sec- 
ond. 



20,000 
20, 000 
20,000 
20, 000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 
20,000 



20,000 
20,000 
20,000 



26,000 



Gross 
head. 



313. 8 
312. 5 
312.5 
312.2 
215.2 

97.0 
312.0 
219.0 

93.0 



316.4 
316.4 
316. 4 



326.4 



Net 
head. 



302. 8 
301.3 
299.0 
297.5 
208.2 

89.2 
298.4 
214.4 

84.0 



312.9 
312. 9 
309.9 



310.2 



Total 
horse- 
power 
on 
bus 
bars. 



591,000 
588,000 
584,000 
580,000 
406, 000 
174,000 
573,000 
409,000 
164,000 



611,000 
611,000 
605. 000 



787,000 



Horse- 
power, 

per 
cubic 

feet 

per 
second. 



29.6 
29.4 
29.2 
29.0 
20.3 

8.7 
28.6 
20.4 

8.2 



30.6 
30. 6 
30.2 



30.3 



Construc- 
tion 
cost. 1 



$43, 579, 000 
50, 803, 000 
52,220,000 
61,227,000 
31,528,000 
29, 699, 000 
55,481,000 
21,183,000 
34, 298, 000 



198,412,000 
203,000,000 
170,000,000 

93,000,000 
401, 760, 000 



Con- 
struc- 
tion 
cost, 
per 
horse- 
power. 



£73. 70 
86.40 
89.40 

105. 60 
77.70 

170. 70 
96.80 
51.80 

209. 10 



324. 70 
332. 20 
281.00 

97.50 
510. 50 



Time of 
develop- 
ment 
(years). 



First 
power. 



Com- 
plete. 



& 

5 

5 

4i 

4£ 

4i 

4i 

3* 

4} 



10 

10 

9 



1 See text for assumptions and omissions. 

In line with the remarks in the preceding paragraph, and in further 
explanation of statements in Section F-l of this report regarding 
economic sizes of main conduits, it may be noted that the most eco- 
nomical diameter of long tunnel for the tailrace tunnel, pressure 
tunnel, and two-stage propositions on the basis of the finally assumed 
unit costs, fixed charges, and selling price of power is 43 feet instead 
of 48 feet, as adopted. Use of the smaller tunnel would decrease the 



340 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

construction cost of the pressure-tunnel proposition about 8 per cent 
and reduce the power output a little more than 2 per cent. The con- 
struction cost per horsepower produced would be reduced approxi- 
mately 6J per cent. This brings the cost per horsepower of the pres- 
sure-tunnel proposition more than one-third of the way down to the 
corresponding figure for the power-canal proposition, but decreases the 
available power output by 14,000 horsepower. The basis on which the 
various propositions were compared, as defined in the assumptions 
stated in Section F-l, was not the production of equal amounts of 
power from equal quantities of water, but the use in each case of 20,000 
cubic feet of water per second to produce as much power as was con- 
sistent with good economy of development. At the same time it was 
considered wise to increase main tunnels and canals somewhat beyond 
the size demanded by present-day economy to prevent falling into a 
difficulty similar to that now confronting the plant of the old Niagara 
Falls Power Co. In so doing it has come about that the total amounts 
of power provided by the various propositions do not differ very 
widely. 

Another point in this connection is the situation with respect to the 
location of the power house in the lower gorge. For best economy of 
investment the power house of the power-canal proposition should be 
located where shown, abreast of Riverdale Cemetery. To move it 
either up or down stream economy must be sacrificed. With respect 
to all the tunnel propositions, however, the economy would be slightly 
improved by locating the downstream terminus near Devils Hole. 
Nine feet of head would thus be sacrificed, representing a large amount 
of power* The Devils Hole site was avoided to prevent such sacrifice 
of available power, and at the same time to make the tunnel and canal 
propositions more nearly comparable. 

The costs given in the preceding parts of Section F and in Table No. 
41 covering the various projects considered, do not include the entire 
capital costs nor even the whole of what might be termed construction 
costs. Thus the general overhead items, properly part of construction 
costs, which have been omitted in each case, are costs of promoting in- 
terest in the proposition, of obtaining funds, of organizing a managing 
company, and of legal services involved in promotion, financing, and 
organizing. The fundamental item of purchase of any necessary 
rights from existing power companies has not been included. The de- 
velopment expense involved in building up a market for power con- 
sumption and making the enterprise a going concern, also properly a 
pait of capital cost, has been omitted. The costs given are called con- 
struction costs. They include purchase of necessary land and rights 
of way and construction required in providing a plant to produce elec- 
tric energy at generator voltage on the bus bars of the power station. 
All expense pertaining to transformation and transmission of electric 
energy has been omitted purposely. 

The omissions just mentioned have appreciable effects on the capital 
cost of each proposition, and since these effects are not equal on the 
different projects, it becomes desirable to note them and discuss them 
briefly. Furthermore, in the matter of operating costs there are almost 
certain to be differences worthy of consideration; and, if so, these 
should be taken into account in studying the desirability of the differ- 
ent schemes. An estimate has therefore been made of the cost of pro- 
ducing power in each case. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 341 

Any one of the seven propositions listed in Table No. 41, which 
covers the full head, might be adopted as the final plan for utilizing 
the full 20,000 cubic feet per second of diversion now permissible under 
the treaty with Great Britain. Under any of these plans some or all of 
the existing plants would be superseded. Whether or not the com- 
panies now diverting water from the Niagara River have any rights 
to such water beyond the revocable ones granted by their permits 
from the Secretary of War, and whether any new company desiring 
to use this water would have to compensate them is considered to be a 
question outside of the scope of this report. 

It is essential, however, that the effect of these rights, if any exist, 
upon the cost of producing power by the various propositions to be 
compared be taken into consideration, as it has an important effect 
upon the relative economy of the different propositions. For this 
reason, the comparison Avill be worked out under two different as- 
sumptions. First, it will be assumed that the companies now using 
water possess a right therein that can not be taken from them with- 
out equitable compensation. Under this assumption the cost of pro- 
ducing power from the authorized diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per 
second by each of the propositions will be compared. Matter relat- 
ing to this comparison will be referred to as based on " the use of 
the first diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second." Secondly, it will 
be assumed that by a new treaty an additional diversion of 20,000 
cubic feet per second has been authorized. This could be developed 
without interfering with the existing plants and without expense 
for acquiring any rights which the existing companies may claim to 
possess. The comparison of costs of power production under this 
second assumption will be referred to as based on " the use of the 
second diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second." If it be found, as 
a matter of fact, that the power companies have no rights of any 
kind for the deprivation of which they would be entitled to compen- 
sation, the comparative costs computed for the second diversion of 
20,000 cubic feet per second would apply also to new plants built to 
utilize the diversion authorized by the existing treat} 7 . 

The power outputs listed in Table No. 41, and used in deriving 
the construction costs per horsepower, as given in the same table, 
are the outputs which would obtain with plants in first-class con- 
dition, operating at best efficiency, with the river at mean stage, and 
using in each case the full quantity of water listed under total 
diversion. 

As regards variation of power with stage, the situation at Niagara 
is almost ideal. The full supply of water up to any total diversion 
contemplated is available at any stage of the river which occurs, and 
can be diverted for power development except in extremely rare 
cases of very bad conditions. The head varies a little with changes 
of stage, the variation in water level in the Maid of the Mist Poo! 
being in the same direction and about four times as great as in the 
Chippawa-Grass Island Pool. Accordingly, at high stage the avail- 
able head is less than at mean sta^e and the possible power output 
correspondingly loss, conditions being reversed at low stage. It is 
only once or twice a year that this variation amounts to as much as 
1 per cent. 

The assumption of full power output, and full continuous diver- 
sion of the maximum amount of water permitted, is in accordance 



342 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER 

with common practice when comparing construction costs per horse- 
power. Such an output would not, of course, be obtained in actual 
operation, and the construction cost per horsepower of actual average 
output would be greater than that given, depending in amount on 
the output. 

In estimating operating costs it has seemed best to assume a power 
output in each case such as it is believed would exist after the plant 
wa fully constructed and the market built up to capacity. The 
ratio of average power delivered to maximum power delivered 
is known as the load factor. The situation at Niagara Falls is 
unique in respect to the load factors which prevail. At the plant 
of the Hydraulic Power Co. it is probably nearer unity than at any 
other large plant in the world, the daily load factor ranging from 
90 to 99 per cent. At the plant of the Niagara Falls Power Co. it 
is much lower, but still unusually good. A load factor of 60 per cent 
is well above the average in central station practice. The reason for 
the high-load factors at Niagara Falls is the fact that the load is 
consumed largely by electrochemical plants operating continuous 
processes, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. These industries are the 
ones which benefit most from cheap power, and most of them are 
actually dependent upon it for existence. There are many reasons 
for believing that the future market developed in this vicinity will 
consist largely of loads of similar character, and accordingly it has 
been assumed that 90 per cent of the full power production possible 
at mean stage will be marketed continuously. The power produc- 
tion costs are based on this assumption. 

The marketable power production of a plant which is limited as 
to its supply of water depends to a slight extent upon the power 
factor of the connected load, and the production cost depends even 
more on the power factor. For a plant as a whole the power factor 
may be defined as the ratio of output in kilowatts to output in kilo- 
volt-amperes. Niagara loads are very good in this respect also, the 
power factors averaging close to unity because of the character of 
the connected loads. An important consideration being the use of 
many synchronous converters whose fields may be overexcited to 
keep this factor near unity. The generators provided in the esti- 
mates are designed with ample windings to permit full turbine ca- 
pacity to be developed with the power factor at 90 per cent. At 
this value the reduction in the amount of marketable power avail- 
able is too light to be considered. Because of the extra copper in 
the generators, however, and the extra size of the generator thereby 
required, the capital costs, and hence the annual charges, are in- 
creased. 

The estimates of cost of producing power probably are not as accu- 
rate as the construction cost estimates, being based on less reliable 
data and having been prepared with far less care. As already pointed 
out, they are probably several dollars per horsepower per annum less 
than the ultimate actual cost of delivering power on the premises of 
any customer because of the cost items omitted. They should be 
regarded as rough estimates, believed to be sufficiently good to form 
a fair basis of comparison of the various propositions. Production 
costs include fixed charges and operation charges, which latter in- 
clude salaries of most of the employees, cost of supplies, and cost of 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LARES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 343 

maintenance. Maintenance includes repairs and minor or frequent 
replacements. Fixed charges were assumed at 10 per cent per annum 
of the total construction costs, being divided as follows : Interest on 
investment, 5^ per cent; depreciation, 2J per cent; taxes and insur- 
ance, 2 per cent. The operation costs were computed in each case. 

As regards fixed charges, a few general remarks seem desirable. 
A rate of interest of 5^ per cent was considered best for these esti- 
mates. It is evident that the rate will depend to a large extent on 
the credit of the organization handling the enterprise. Thus if it 
were undertaken by the United States Government, funds might be 
readily raised at 4 to 4| per cent on Government bonds based on the 
property and guaranteed by the Treasury Department. 

At Niagara Falls a water-power development is far less specu- 
lative, and it seems likely that financing would be less difficult, than 
under average conditions. On a normal money market a private 
company might be able to finance such a proposition at rates varying 
between 5 and 7 per cent, depending on the resources and character 
of the men in charge. The rate of 5J per cent adopted in these esti- 
mates was a mean of the various possible cases considered. 

Depreciation has been taken at 2J per cent per annum on the whole 
construction cost with the thought that a depreciation reserve will be 
established to care for retirement of property items which have be- 
come inadequate or obsolete or which require replacement because of 
accident, use, or age, the funds representing the balance of the reserve 
being at all times readily available for replacements, in order to 
preserve the integrity of the total investment unimpaired. 

It is understood that a proper annual depreciation allowance to 
cover hydraulic and electric machinery ranges from 4 to 8 per cent. 
Something like half the cost of construction of these propositions, 
however, is for works whose rate of depreciation is likely to be so low 
that 1 per cent per annum of the construction cost set aside at 5 per 
cent compound interest would seem ample to care for it. Another 
portion of the works amounting to more than one-quarter of the 
total construction cost might be cared for by a 2 per cent annuity 
similarly set aside. For the average expected service life an annual 
rate of 2J per cent has seemed about right. This is based on the 
compound-interest method of depreciation accounting as applied to 
individual items of the property. 

Two per cent per annum of the construction cost is believed to be 
sufficient to cover both insurance and taxes, including fire and lia- 
bility insurance and property and war taxes. Since it has been as- 
sumed in these estimates that gross income is just sufficient to main- 
tain and operate the plant there is no net income, and hence no income 
tax to care for. War taxes include only excise, utilities, insurance, 
and stamp taxes and amount to a very small sum comparatively. 

Several engineers were found to be agreed that 10 per cent was 
about right for fixed charges, and it is believed the assumption is 
sufficiently correct even though the subdivision of the total into its 
parts is not as well worked out. It is to be noted that the matter of 
fixed charges is very important in its effect both on annual pro- 
duction charges and on construction costs. Thus fixed charges con- 
stitute two-thirds or more of the annual production charges. They 
also influence construction costs because they form the most in- 



344 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

fluential factor in the determination of the economic sizes of various 
portions of the plant. 

In computing operation charges an estimate was made of the posi- 
tions to be filled and the probable salaries required. To the annual 
sum covering salaries 40 per cent was added to cover supplies and 
sundries. An estimate was then made of the annual cost of repairs 
and minor replacements. This latter figure was based on such infor- 
mation as came to hand. In each case the figure for repairs and 
minor replacements is much the same as the figure for salaries and 
supplies. As already stated, it is believed the estimated operating 
charges as presented give a reasonable idea of what might be ex- 
pected. They seem to compare properly with other estimates and 
known costs. An engineer well acquainted with power-plant opera- 
tion at Niagara Falls stated that it was impossible to forecast within 
limits of any value the operation costs of a plant so much larger than 
and different from any yet constructed. It seems, on the other hand 
that it is of importance to know that they are likely to be more than 
$1 per horsepower year and less than $4. As a matter of comparison 
among the different propositions the figures given are believed to be 
very fair. 

For the sake of clearness and simplicity first consideration will be 
given to the case that might arise after the companies at present 
operating were fully cared for and were utilizing the 20,000 cubic 
feet per second of water provided in the present treaty. If then an 
additional 20,000 cubic feet per second of water was to be developed 
under one of the first four propositions listed in Table No. 41, the 
operation costs and annual charges for horsepower would be as in 
Table No. 42. 

Table No. 42. — Estimated annual charges for power development, exclusive of 
fixed charges on original overhead and development expenses. 

[Based on use of a second diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second.] 



No. 



Proposition. 



90 per cent of 

maximum 

continuous 

output, in 

horsepower. 



Fixed charges 
per horse- 
power per 

year. 



Operation 
charges per 
horsepower 

per year. 



Cost of power 
on bus bars 
per horse- 
power per 
year. 



Power canal 

Pressure tunnel.. 
Tailrace tunnel. . 
Simple two-stage 



532, 000 
529, 000 
526,000 
522, 000 



$8.20 
9.60 
9.90 

11.70 



$1.80 
1.70 
1.70 
2.20- 



$10. 00 
11.30 
11.60 
13.90 



Under the conditions noted, this power would be sold to new plants 
which would preferably be located as near as possible to the new 
power houses. Transforming and transmission costs would be the 
same for all four propositions, except that the tailrace-tunnel prop- 
osition would be somewhat handicapped by the fact that there are 
fewer available factory sites near it than near the others. 

The question of the most economical method of utilizing the pres- 
ent authorized diversion of 20,000 cubic feet of water per second 
under the assumption that the companies now using this diversion 
must be compensated if it is taken away from them will now be taken 
up. The best way to care for the Pettebone Cataract Paper Co., 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 345 

Cataract City Milling Co., and Lockport interests would seem to be 
to compensate them for the loss of the water by providing a suitable 
supply of electric power at very low rates and under favorable con- 
ditions of contract. In case the new power plants do not have a 
transmission line to Lockport, power might be purchased from the 
Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power Co., and resold to plants at that 
place at rates which would protect those interests from loss. The 
cost of providing such compensation for all these interests is very 
uncertain, the matter being a complex one. In order to have some- 
thing to go by, it will be assumed that the Pettebone interests are 
supplied 3,000 horsepower, at $7 per horsepower per annum, the 
power costing the generating company $16 per horsepower per annum 
to provide, and making the net cost to the generating company 
$27,000 per annum. Similarly, it will be assumed that 10,000 horse- 
power is furnished Lockport interests, at $10 per horsepower per 
annum, the power costing $22 per horsepower per annum, or a net 
amount of $120,000 per annum. On these assumptions the total cost 
of compensating the Pettebone and Lockport interests will be $147,- 
000 per annum. 

The new proposition must also, under these assumptions, be 
charged with paying a just return to the present Niagara Falls 
Power Co. to compensate for destroying assets of that company. 
This is another item which at present seems absolutely indetermi- 
nate. As a basis for arriving at it a complete inventory of the 
property would first have to be made, and all tangible and intan- 
gible items concerned carefully appraised. It is thought that this 
charge should not apply to such properties of the present company 
as transformer houses and equipment, transmission lines, railroads, 
real estate held for development, and foreign and domestic power 
plants or distributing plants owned. It should include generators, 
switch gear, conductors, and electrical accessories, owned by the 
Aluminum Co. of America, and the Cliff Electrical Distributing Co., 
in so far as they form component parts of the present power plant. 

In explanation of the exclusion of transformer houses, transmis- 
sion lines, distributing plants, etc., it may be stated that the assump- 
tion was that electric power would be sold to the Niagara Falls 
Power Co. at a price sufficient to permit it to operate its transform- 
ers, transmission and distributing system, supplying its present cus- 
tomers, and receiving a fair return upon the fair value of this por- 
tion of its plant. 

Under the assumption stated above the charge for compensation 
would properly cover all fixed annual charges against those por- 
tions of the physical property of the Hydraulic Power Co. and old 
Niagara Falls Power Co. now used as parts of hydroelectric plants, 
but made partially or wholly unserviceable under the new scheme, 
to the extent that these charges could not be met by other uses or 
disposition of the^ properties. In addition, it appears that some com- 
pensation might justly be required for intangible values, including, 
to some extent, the present opportunity of the company for profit. 
If the new project was allotted to the present company the opportu- 
nity for profit thus afforded might well be held to replace the lost 
opportunity. The following figures were computed from data given 
in Moody's Manual for 1918, in order to give certain information 



346 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER 

for the Hydraulic Power Co., Cliff Electrical Distributing Co., and 
old Niagara Falls Power Co., combined, for the year 1917: 

Gross income $6, 204, 837 

Operating expenses, taxes, and insurance 2, 607, 878 

Interest 1, 377, 260 

Available for depreciation, surplus, and dividends 2, 219, 699 

The gross income given is from all sources. The expenses cover 
transmission systems, transformer buildings and equipment, and real 
estate not essential to the plant as a power-producing enterprise. 
Proper division between the items which are essential and those not 
essential to the power-producing enterprise is impossible with the 
data at hand, and doubtless would be considered impossible by the 
companies themselves with all the data at their command. It will be 
assumed that a sum of $2,000,000 per annum is a proper compensation 
to the present Niagara Falls Power Co. 

In the case of the compound two-stage proposition, part of the plant 
of this company is retained. Of course, fixed charges on this must be 
included in the final cost of power development. While the distribu- 
tion of cost would differ in minor details in this case the differences 
would be small and because of the great uncertainty involved the same 
figure of $2,000,000 per annum will be used in this case also. 

Table No. 43 is based on the assumptions enumerated in the pre- 
ceding paragraphs. 

The present customers of the existing plants will very likely be 
retained, and the present transforming, transmitting, and distributing 
equipment utilized to its full extent. In each case more than 100,000 
horsepower must be transmitted between the present plants of the 
Hydraulic Power Co. and old Niagara Falls Power Co. No allowance 
has been made for the cost of this item. It is thought the expense 
might be moderate if the necessary cables were placed in the discharge 
tunnel of the Niagara Falls Power Co. This cost item does not affect 
the comparison between plants, as it applies equally to all. For the 
power canal and pressure tunnel projects the present output of the 
existing plants, about 250,000 horsepower, would have to be trans- 
mitted from the lower gorge up to the present milling district. From 
the best data available it is estimated that the yearly cost of this 
service would not exceed $350,000, and that the power ioss would not 
exceed 8,000 horsepower. This would increase the annual cost per 
horsepower from $14 to $14.90 for the power canal proposition, and 
from $15.40 to $16.30 for the pressure tunnel proposition, as shown in 
the last column of Table No. 43. Matters of promotion, finance, etc., 
may be assumed the same in all cases, and so not to affect the validity 
of the final comparison. 

As regards the effect on capital cost, and consequently the effect on 
fixed annual charges, of cost promotion, financing, organization, de- 
velopment of market and going concern, there is a point worthy of 
note. In either of the two-stage propositions the cost of the upper 
stage development is only about one-half of the total cost, while the 
upper plant produced more than two-thirds of the total power. More- 
over the first power could be produced sooner in the two-stage than 
in the single-stage development ; and commencement on construction 
of the main tunnel could be longer delayed, because the upper stage 
plant would be able meantime to supply the growing market. The 
result is that far less unproductive investment is carried at any time 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 347 



with a two-stage than with a single-stage development, and the capital 
cost per horsepower produced is less until the projects near comple- 
tion. This condition would lead to better credit and a sounder 
financial condition during the construction period, which in turn 
might make possible the flotation of bonds on better terms. 

Thus far in the discussion the production cost only has been dwelt 
upon. A chance for profit is necessary in such an enterprise in order 
to induce business men to undertake the risk of running the busi- 
ness and to spur them to the endeavors likely to bring it success. In 
fact, experience teaches that a speculative profit not only is neces- 
sary for inducing the highest degree of managerial efficiency, but is 
considered essential by investors as a " margin of safety " on bonds 
to hold up their value and thus prevent increase in effective in- 
terest rate. A reasonable profit is a proper assumption. It seems to 
be a fact that owners of a company are more willing to reinvest 
earnings in the company's capital than to borrow, although strictly 
the cost of such capital is the same in either case. The two-stage 
plant would begin to sell power much sooner than the single-stage 
plant, and such profit as was derived from these sales would repre- 
sent an accumulation of capital not available to the single-stage plant. 
If selling prices were so adjusted as to yield a satisfactory profit 
after the plant was completed, then the margin would be still greater 
during the first few years in the case of the two-stage project because 
of the lower capital cost and consequent smaller fixed charges per 
horsepower on the upper-stage plant. In addition to swelling profits 
and lessening the cost of financing a project, an increase in the sell- 
ing price of power has an influence on construction cost by modify- 
ing the economic sizes of conduits and other plant items. Thus, 
while an increase in selling price per horsepower year adds to the 
annual income, it at the same time adds to the value of power lost 
in conduits, etc. An increase in size of conduits will diminish the 
power loss at the expense of the fixed annual charges. The extent of 
the increase in size economically justifiable under the new conditions 
is determined by the principle that the sum of annual fixed charges 
plus annual value of power lost shall be a minimum. Were com- 
petition likely to force selling prices down to cost, the economic 
sizes would necessarily be based on a minimum cost of producing 
power consistent with the scope of the proposition adopted. 

Table No. 43. — Estimated annual charges for power development exclusive of 
development expense and original overhead expense on new portion of plant. 

[Based on use of first diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per second.] 



No. 


Proposition. 


90 per 
cent of 

maxi- 
mum con- 
tinuous 
output, 
in horse- 
power. 


Annual 
charge, 
present 
plant of 
Niagara 

Falls 
Power Co. 


Annual 

charge, 

Pette- 

bone and 

Lockport 

interests. 


Ordi- 
nary 
fixed 
charges 

per 
horse- 
power 
per 
year. 


Fixed 
charges 

on 
present 
plant 

per 
horse- 
power 

per 
year. 


Oper- 
ating 
charges 

per 
horse- 
power 
per 
year. 


Cost of 
power 
on bus 
bars per 
horse- 
power 
per 
year. 


Cost 
cor- 
rected 

to 
equal- 
ize dis- 
tribu- 
tion 
condi- 
tions. 


1 


Power canal 


532,000 
520; 000 
526, 000 
522,000 
516,000 


?2, 000, 000 
2, 000, 000 
2, 000, 000 
2,000,000 
2,000,000 


$147, 000 
147, 000 
147,000 
147,000 
147, 000 


83.20 

9.60 

9.90 

11.70 

10.70 


$4.00 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 


SI. 80 
1.70 
1.70 
2.20 
2.20 


$14. 00 
15.40 
15.70 
18.00 
17.00 


$14. 90 


?, 


Pressure tunnel 


16 30 


3 


Tailrace tunnel 


15 70 


4 
5 


Simple two stage 

Compound two stage 


18.00 
17.00 



348 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

An important factor in the determination of the most suitable 
power- development project for Niagara Falls is the matter of rate 
of absorption of the power produced. The estimates heretofore 
given were all made while the war was in progress, and it appeared 
almost certain that any power developed at Niagara Falls would be 
absorbed as rapidly as it could be produced. There was one request 
for 700,000 horsepower in a single block. Accordingly the rate of 
construction assumed was what might be termed rush-work rate, 
and the power was supposed to be absorbed as fast as available. If 
the power was absorbed less rapidly, however, construction interest 
would increase, and the increase would be greater in the single- 
stage than in the two-stage plan, largely because, in the latter case,, 
development of the second stage could be delayed a longer time. A 
larger proportionate number of horsepower hours would be sold 
during the first few years from the two-stage than from the single- 
stage plant, the ratio increasing as the rate of absorption decreased. 

Table No. 44 has been prepared to show the different rates of con- 
struction interest for the various propositions based on two widely 
different rates of absorption of power. The high rate of absorption 
is that assumed in the original computation in each case. For the 
power-canal proposition, for example, it was 243,000 horsepower at 
the end of two and one-half years and 139,000 horsepower each year 
thereafter until completion. The low rate of absorption of power 
assumed was 15,000 horsepower first absorbed at the same time as 
the first power in the other case, and a uniform rate of 60,000 horse- 
power per annum thereafter until completion of the plant. Rates 
of construction interest are on the entire construction cost, less 
interest, as given in the estimate summaries. 

Table No. 44 — Rates of construction interest, shovjing variation with change in 

rate of absorption of power. 



No. 

1 

4 
5 



Proposition. 



Total cost, 
less construc- 
tion interest. 



Rate of construction 
interest. 



At origi- 
nally as- 
sumed rate 
of power 
absorption. 



At power 
absorption 
rate of 60,000 
horsepower 

per year. 



Power canal: 

First 20,000 cubic feet per second. . 

Second 20,000 cubic feet per second 
Simple two-stage: 

Upper stage only 

Lower stage only 

Compound two-stage: 

Upper stage only 

Lower stage only , 



$40,351,000 
40,351,000 

29,405,000 
27,499,000 

20,174,000 
31,466,000 



Per cent. 



Per cent. 



18 

m 

14 

11 



11 



What a hydroelectric generating station has to sell is electric 
energy, and this is a capacity to do work. Rate of work is expressed 
customarily in horsepower or in kilowatts, and electric energy in 
kilowatt hours, horsepower hours, or horsepower years. The revenue 
depends, of course, somewhat on the form of selling contracts, but 
in general it is fair to assume that the ultimate amount of revenue 
depends very largely on the number of kilowatt hours produced. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 349 

The two-stage proposition has an advantage, during the first few 
years after construction is commenced, over the single-stage proposi- 
tion, because power is produced so much sooner. As time goes on, 
however, the total production by the single stage overtakes and sur- 
passes that by the two stage. The first 20,000 cubic feet per second 
development has a considerable advantage over the second in that 
power will continue to be produced by the present pknts until the 
time the water is needed for the new stations. This early advantage 
of the two-stage proposition is larger, and continues longer, when 
the rate of construction and rate of power absorption are low. Thus 
at the originally assumed rate of power absorption the total power 
production by the power canal proposition overtakes that by the 
simple two-stage proposition in 3J years after commencement of 
construction, and thereafter is greater, its advantages continuing to 
increase slightly. 

At the 60,000 horsepower rate of absorption the point of equality 
is reached in 42J years. It is perhaps somewhat more correct to 
compare the propositions on the basis of total amount of energy 
produced per dollar of construction cost. On this basis the power 
canal proposition overtakes the simple two-stage proposition in 3f 
years at the original rate of power consumption, and in 7£ 
years at the 60,000 horsepower per annum rate of absorption. 
In point of power production per dollar of construction cost the 
power canal proposition overtakes the compound two-stage prop- 
position at the high rate of absorption of power in 2f years, and 
at the low rate of absorption in 9J years. The whole compari- 
son is very unstable, depending upon the estimates of cost of con- 
struction and time of construction, a very important factor being 
the estimate of length of time taken to produce first power in each 
case. The computations which were made and the curves which 
were plotted while studying this matter indicate definitely that on 
the assumptions of the estimates the power canal proposition is con- 
siderably superior to the simple two-stage proposition as regards 
total output per dollar invested, for any reasonable assumption of 
rate of power absorption, readily surpassing the latter in 12 years 
or less, depending upon the rate of absorption. The pressure tunnel 
is about midway between the two in this respect. Considering the 
compound two-stage proposition it appears that the pressure tunnel 
project is a little better, and the power canal project considerably 
better at a high rate of power absorption, but at a very low rate of 
absorption the compound two-stage proposition considerably sur- 
passes the pressure tunnel project, and falls very little behind the 
power canal project. 

There is one more consideration worthy of note. In case con- 
struction operations on a proposed power development were for any 
reason suspended before completion, the unproductive expenditure 
then existing would be smaller for the two-stage than for the single- 
stage propositions, unless they were very nearly completed. 

There is a question as to whether or not the power-development 
propositions should be required to assume any part of the expense 
of constructing remedial works just above Horseshoe Falls or else- 
where in Niagara River. 



350 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

To sum up the comparison of the single-stage and two-stage 
propositions, there is shown in favor of the single-stage proposition : 

1. Lower construction cost per horsepower. 

2. Lower unit cost of power production. 

3. Greater total financial return per dollar invested, except in case 
absorption of the power developed takes place at a very slow rate. 

There is shown in favor of the two-stage proposition : 

1. Increasing advantage as rate of power absorption decreases. 

2. Superiority of compound two-stage proposition at very low 
power- absorption rate. 

3. Easier financing. 

4. First power produced sooner. 

5. Better credit maintained. 

6. Total return from sale of power greater for first few years. 

7. In case of suspension of construction activities before comple- 
tion there would be — 

(a) Smaller capital cost per horsepower produced. 

(b) Less unproductive expenditure carried. 

A study of the foregoing presentation of estimates, facts, and 
ideas and the comparison and discussion of them leads to the con- 
elusion that for utilizing the present authorized diversion of 20,000 
cubic feet of water per second from Niagara River above the falls 
there is, on the whole very little to choose between the compound 
two-stage proposition and the power-canal proposition. 

The study further shows that for a second development, designed 
to utilize an additional and similar diversion of 20,000 cubic feet 
per second, a power-canal project similar to that presented is much 
cheaper than any other scheme. 

The power canal proposed would not be navigable, and it could 
not properly be made a part of a navigable waterway. No combi- 
nation of power development with navigable canal from upper to 
lower river is justifiable on the basis of power production. The 
La Salle to Lewiston route is the best for a ship canal. It is cheaper 
to construct this canal of 200- foot width and 30-foot depth for navi- 
gation use only, and also the power-canal proposition, than to con- 
struct the combined power and ship-canal proposition. The com- 
bined proposition would no doubt have more ice difficulties than the 
power-canal proposition. 

In Section E of the report it has been pointed out that 40,000 cubic 
feet per second may safely be diverted around the Whirlpool and 
Lower Rapids, this being the total for both sides. The wisdom of 
diverting any more is doubted, and it is felt that this amount should 
be diverted first and observation of the resultant effects noted before 
further diversions are permitted. It was also pointed out that at 
least 80,000 cubic feet per second might be diverted around the Falls 
from the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool to the Maid of the Mist Pool, 
the latter diversion being permissible only on condition that adequate 
remedial works be constructed just above Horseshoe Falls. 

The studies given in the preceding pages indicate that if a new 
treaty should authorize such a diversion, equally divided between the 
two countries, the most economical method of utilizing the portions 
on the American side would be to complete the upper stage of the 
compound two-stage proposition to care for a diversion of 20,000 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 351 



cubic feet per second from the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool to the 
Maid of the Mist Pool, and then, when the market for power was 
right, construct a single-stage development to care for a diversion 
of 20,000 cubic feet per second from the Chippawa-Grass Island 
Pool to the lower gorge at Riverdale Cemetery. The construction 
of the lower-stage portion of the compound two-stage proposition 
and the building of another single-stage plant to care for a third 
20,000 cubic feet per second remain as interesting possibilities for 
the future, which might ultimately be built in case observation and 
study of the effects of increased diversion over a period of years 
should show these projects to be desirable. 

W. S. Richmond. 



Appendix E. 
EFFECTS OF DIVERSIONS UPON LAKE LEVELS. 



[Section G of Mr. Richmond's report.] 
1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

The Great Lakes are essentially a series of natural reservoirs in 
which are stored large volumes of water collected from their respec- 
tive drainage basins. The connecting and outflow rivers are the 
overflows for these reservoirs. The amounts of water in storage are 
dependent upon the differences between supply and overflow and 
are measured by the heights of water in the reservoirs. Variations 
in lake levels thus register the variable differences between net sup- 
ply and discharge. When the rate of supply to a lake is greater than 
the discharge, the amount of storage increases and the stage of the 
lake rises, and when less the storage decreases and the lake falls. 
Except when obstructed by ice, the outflow or discharge through the 
natural outlet increases or decreases with the head or stage of water 
in the lake and with the slope of the outflowing stream. Under 
these natural laws there is a constant tendency toward equalization 
of supply and discharge. For instance, if the supply, which is 
usually variable from month to month and from year to year, should 
become constant, the stage of water in the lake would soon reach and 
remain at a height whereby the discharge would exactly equal the 
supply. If the supply should be increased or decreased by a constant 
amount, the level of the lake would gradually change until a new 
level was reached where the supply and discharge would again be 
equal. There is the same natural tendency toward equalization when 
through natural or artificial agencies the capacity of the outlet or 
outlets is changed. Assuming that the stage of a lake is at a height 
where the supply and discharge are equal, if the outlet is enlarged 
or an additional outlet is created, the discharge must necessarily be 
increased for a time, and as the supply is unaffected, the storage is 
diminished and the stage of water falls. With the falling stage the 
discharge decreases until the rates of supply and discharge become 
equal. With a variable supply the effect is fundamentally the same, 
although it may be masked by the changes in level caused by the 
change in supply. For instance, if when the outlet is enlarged, the 
supply happens to increase by a greater amount or faster than the 
simultaneous increase in capacity of discharge, the result is an in- 
creasing stage. However, the increase in stage in such case is less 
than it would have been without the change in outflow conditions 
and the lowering effect is real although not apparent. 

Such is the effect of uncompensated diversions from the Great 
Lakes. The water supply to each lake depends on the inflow of 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 353 

streams, seepage from adjacent ground, rainfall on the lake surface, 
and evaporation from the lake surface. The supply of the inflowing 
streams depends primarily on rainfall on and evaporation from their 
drainage basins. In each drainage basin the run-off and evaporation 
depend on the nature of the topography, character of the soil, extent 
and character of the vegetation, and the prevailing winds and tem- 
peratures. If the net supply were constant, or if it were precisely 
measurable, the levels of the lakes could be made to show by direct 
observation the effects of diversions. Gauge records for this purpose 
would necessarily extend over considerable periods of time to elemi- 
nate effects of wind and atmospheric pressure. Wind effects reach a 
maximum on Lake Erie, where, during storms, the eastern end is 
sometimes 15 feet higher than the western end. Because the supply 
is variable and only roughly determinable, its effects on water levels 
can not be separated from that of diversions, and hence the latter 
can be measured or demonstrated only in an indirect way. However, 
there is a direct relationship between the water levels and the natural 
capacity for discharge, and, through the determination of this rela- 
tionship, it is possible to ascertain with certainty the effects on water 
levels of changes in outflow conditions or of artificial diversions. 
This may be illustrated by a simple hypothetical case. Consider a 
small pond or artificial reservoir whose sole supply of water is from 
a single brook and whose sole outlet is over a fixed weir or dam at 
the opposite end. 

Assuming that the inflow is constant and that there are no losses 
in the pond, it is obvious that the outflow over the dam will be con- 
stant and will equal the supply from the brook; also the depth of 
water over the crest of the dam, which is measured by the height of 
water in the pond, will remain constant. This general condition 
holds true for any constant supply regardless of its amount, but 
manifestly the depth of water over the dam will not be the same for 
different rates of supply. If by any means the supply from the 
brook or its equivalent, the discharge over the dam, is measured, the 
depth or level of water at the time of measurement will mark the 
stage which corresponds with the measured rate of supply or dis- 
charge. If measurements are repeated for other rates of supply or 
discharge, and the corresponding heights of water observed, addi- 
tional equivalents of stage and discharge are determined, and when 
the number of such measurements is sufficient to plot a graphical 
curve or derive an empirical equation of relationship between stage 
and discharge, the discharging capacity of the dam is known for 
any stage within the limits of observation. 

In this suppositious case, consider that the curve or equation of 
relationship between stage and discharge has been established and 
that for discharges of 1,000 and 600 cubic feet per second the stages 
of water are 4 feet and 3 feet, respectively, above the crest of the 
dam. Suppose a second outlet is created and that when uniform 
flow has been established it is determined that the flow through the 
second outlet is 400 cubic feet per second and the stage of water is 3 
feet. Manifestly the flow over the dam at the original outlet is 600 
cubic feet per second and the supply, which is equal to the total dis- 
charge, is 1,000 cubic feet per second. Without the second outlet the 

27886—21 23 



354 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

stage would be 4 feet, with it the stage is 3 feet, hence the lowering 
caused by the second outlet is 1 foot. 

Conditions on the Great Lakes are essentially the same as those 
considered above. The Lakes themselves correspond to the pond, the 
outflow rivers correspond to the outlet at the dam, and diversions 
from the Lakes are the same in effect as the discharge through a new 
outlet. Long series of discharge measurements in the outflow rivers 
have been made by the United States Lake Survey Office and the 
results have furnished discharge equations based on stages in the 
Lakes. By means of these discharge equations the effect upon the 
levels of the Lakes for any change in outflow conditions may be 
determined. 

Diversions from the Great Lakes may be divided into three classes 
in respect to their effect upon water levels, namely, (a) those which 
are returned to the same body or level of water from which they are 
diverted, and which consequently have no permanent effect upon the 
water levels, (b) those which are returned to a lower level of water 
in the Great Lakes basin and which, unless compensated for, lower 
the levels of those bodies of water at and somewhat upstream from 
the point of withdrawal and all the others downstream from them to 
but not beyond the body of water to which they are returned, and 
(c) those which are permanently removed from the basin and which 
lower water levels at and, in some cases, upstream from the point of 
withdrawal and all those downstream through the lower lakes and 
rivers to the level of the sea. The upper limits of effects produced 
by the latter two classes of diversions are the uppermost levels of 
water which are dependent upon or are effected by the levels at the 
points of withdrawal. 

Examples of the three classes of diversions and the limits of their 
effects on water levels are as follows : 

(a) Water pumped from Lake Michigan at Milwaukee for the 
flushing of Milwaukee River, or water pumped for sanitary purposes 
at Duluth, Toledo, Cleveland, and other cities similarly situated, is 
returned directly to the Lakes, and obviously does not change the net 
supply to these Lakes or the volume of outflow through their natural 
outlets, and hence does not affect their levels. 

(b) Diversions from Lake Erie, through the Welland Canal lower 
the waters of the lakes and rivers from the head of Lake Michigan and 
the foot of St. Marys Falls down to the lower end of Niagara River. 
As the water is returned to Lake Ontario they do not affect the levels 
of that lake nor of the St. Lawrence River. 

(c) The diversion from Lake Michigan through the Chicago Drain- 
age Canal lowers all lakes and rivers of the Great Lakes system down 
to the Gulf of St. Lawrence with the exception of Lake Superior and 
St. Marys River above the foot of St. Marys Falls. 

2. OUTLETS OF THE LAKES AND FORMULAS OF DISCHARGE. 

St. Marys River. — The natural outflow from Lake Superior is 
through the St. Marys River, and the level of the lake was originally 
determined by the natural discharging capacity of St. Marys Falls. 
These rapids, with a fall of about 19 feet in less than a mile, form 
practically a free overfall weir ; in other words, changes in the level of 
the water at their foot have no effect upon their discharging capacity. 



DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 355 

The natural flow has been changed by the construction of the piers of 
the international railroad bridge, by filling in along either shore, by 
the construction of canals and locks on both sides of the river, by the 
diversion of water for power purposes, and by the construction of 
regulating works in the river above the international bridge. 

Measurements of the flow of the river have been made by the 
Lake Survey Office in 1896, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1905, and 1908, each 
series of measurements determining the relation between stage and 
flow for the particular time in which they were made. Since the 
time of the last measurements the restrictions have been increased, 
until at the present time there is only about 25 per cent of the orig- 
inal area and 33 per cent of the original discharging capacity open 
to free flow. Twenty-two per cent of the area and 11 per cent of 
the discharge is obstructed by the head race of the United States 
Power Station, formerly owned and operated by the Chandler- 
Dunbar Water Power Co., and by the permanent structures of the 
controlling works, while 53 per cent of the area and 56 per cent of 
the original capacity of discharge are under direct control by means 
of the movable gates of the regulating works. Present plans con- 
template further extension of controlling works to the full width of 
the open river, and a portion of these works are under construction. 
It is probable that the outflow from Lake Superior will be brought 
under full control at some not far distant date. 

tit. Clair River. — The natural outlet from Lakes Michigan- 
Huron is through the St. Clair River, which is relatively broad and 
deep with but little fall. The flow through the river depends, there- 
fore, not only upon the elevation of Lake Huron, but also upon the 
elevation of Lake St. Clair, which in turn depends upon the eleva- 
tion of Lake Erie. Measurements of the flow of the St. Clair River 
have been made by the United States Lake Survey during two 
periods, each covering several seasons, the first 1899-1902, the sec- 
ond 1908-1910. As there was no material change in the regimen of 
the river between these periods, all of the measurements were available 
for the determination of a law of discharge. As the stage of Lake St. 
Clair usually follows that of Lake Huron rather closely, the differen- 
tiation of headwater and backwater effects is somewhat difficult. 
Using a modified formula for a submerged weir, an equation has been 
derived by the Lake Survey Office which fits the observations excel- 
lently and appears to be satisfactory. This equation, which applies to 
present conditions and is good at least as far back as 1903 and possibly 
1895, is as follows : 
Discharge cubic feet per second St. Clair River=3758 ( (H-567.51) + 

1.25(h-567.51))(H-h)* 
in which H is the elevation above sea level on the Fort Gratiot gauge 
and h is the elevation above sea level on the St. Clair Flats Canal 
gauge. 

As the elevation of Lake Huron is usually determined by or referred 
to readings of the Harbor Beach gauge, the formula has been modified 
to fit elevations at Harbor Beach by means of a known law of relation- 
ship. The modified formula is : 
Discharge cubic feet per second St. Clair River=3820( (H'-567.50) + 

1.135(h-567.50))(H'-h)* 
in which H' is the elevation above sea level on Harbor Beach gauge 
and h is the elevation at St. Clair Flats. 



356 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Detroit River. — The Detroit River may be considered a continuation 
of the St. Clair River, and hence a section of the discharge channel 
from Lake Huron, Lake St. Clair being merely an expansion of this 
channel with comparatively small storage capacity. Some measure- 
ments of the flow in the Detroit River were made by the Lake Survey 
in 1901-1902, but they are too few in number and do not cover a suffi- 
cient range in stages to establish a law of flow. 

As the local supply to Lake St. Clair is small and fairly uniform 
during the summer months, it is possible to determine an approximate 
discharge formula for the Detroit River from the equation for the St. 
Clair River. From the monthly mean water levels at Harbor Beach 
and St. Clair Flats, June to November, inclusive, for the years 1912- 
1918, inclusive, during which period there is no evidence of change in 
the regemen of either river, the discharge of the St. Clair River for 
each month has been computed ; and with these values of the discharge 
and the corresponding observed elevations at St. Clair Flats and 
Cleveland, an equation has been derived in terms of these latter gauges. 
This equation is : 
Discharge cubic feet per second Detroit River =10767 ((h-567.25) + 

0.44(h'-567.25))(h-h')* 
in which h is the elevation above sea level at St. Clair Flats Canal 
gauge and h' the elevation above sea level on the Cleveland gauge. 

The values given by this equation do not include the local supply to 
Lake St. Clair and St. Clair River, owing to the manner of its/ deriva- 
tion. 

Changes in regimen in the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers. — It ap- 
pears probable that there have been some changes in the regimen of 
the St. Clair and the Detroit Rivers since the first gauge records on 
these rivers were obtained. In the case of the St. Clair River these 
have probably not been large, and there have been no changes of 
moment due to improvements for navigation purposes since the con- 
struction of the canal at St. Clair Flats. Small changes in the 
regimen apparently occur from year to year due largely to movement 
of the material which overlies the true bottom. During storms some 
material, principally sand and gravel, is brought into the river from 
the shores of Lake Huron, and is carried from point to point down 
the river by varying velocity and direction of the current. Bars are 
built up along the snores in the rapids at the head of the river in the 
fall, but are of short duration. Dredging on Black River Shoal and 
in the river above it appears to have but little effect on-thp depth, 
the material excavated being replaced within a short time. There is 
evidence in the measurements of the flow indicating that these small 
changes occur from year to year, but are only temporary. The 
measurements of flow made in 1902 compared with those made in 
1901 show a change in discharge capacity of about 3 per cent, while 
the measurements of 1909 and 1910 are about midway between those 
of 1901 and 1902. In 1898-99 four sections were established near 
the head of the river, and were very carefully sounded. Soundings 
made since on these sections indicate that there has been no measure- 
able change in the cross-section of the river. 

In the Detroit River there has probably been less change in dis- 
charging capacity due to natural causes than in the St. Clair River, 
but the changes due to improvements for navigation and other pur- 
poses have undoubtedly been larger. The construction in 1872 of the 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 357 

bridge at Trenton west of Grosse Isle and the pier extending some 
1,300 feet into the main channel from Stony Island materially de- 
creased the cross-section of the river, and the encroaching dock line 
along the Detroit river front and some large fills on the Canadian 
side have further lessened the discharging capacity. The construc- 
tion of the Belle Isle bridge in 1889 obstructed an appreciable part of 
the cross-section of the channel west of Belle Isle, and must have 
had some effect on the discharging capacity of the river. On the 
other hand, dredging at Lime Kiln Crossing and at other points has 
tended to increase the capacity of the river. Thus the Detroit River 
has undergone a number of minor changes in regimen, the effect of 
which has been compensating to a considerable extent 

The greatest change in regimen and the only one of which the 
effects were directly observed was that occurring in the years 1908- 
1911, when the cofferdam around the upper section of the Living- 
stone Channel was in place. This cofferdam, by decreasing the cross- 
section of the river, east of Grosse Isle, caused an appreciable back 
water in the upper Detroit River and Lake St. Clair. The rise at 
St. Clair Flats was observed to be 0.28 foot. When this cofferdam 
was cut, in 1912, Lake St. Clair dropped back to its natural level, 
thus showing that the remaining portions of the cofferdam, together 
with the iudicious placing of spoil, had exactly balanced the effect of 
the new channel. 

That there has been any large change in the discharging capacity 
of the St. Clair-Detroit River appears improbable. The elevation of 
the SUT'fa r e of Lake St. Clair, lyin<? between Lakes Huron and Erie, 
depends almost entirely upon the elevations of these two larger lakes. 
Any change in the regimen of either river will cause a change in the 
relative elevation of Lake St. Clair. This is illustrated nearly every 
winter at times when one or the other of the rivers is blocked with 
ice. The elevation of the surface of Lake St. Clair therefore be- 
comes an index of any change in the regimen of either river. 

By means of the equations of discharge of the two rivers the nor- 
mal elevations of Lake St. Clair may be computed for any particular 
stages of Lakes Huron and Erie. On Plate No. 52 is shown the 
difference between the observed and the computed elevations of Lake 
St. Clair in periods of three years, each year consisting of the six 
summer months, June to November, inclusive. This plate shows a 
rise in Lake St. Clair from 1872 to 1881 of about 0.2 foot which 
might be caused by an increased flow in the St. Clair River or a de- 
creased flow in the Detroit River of about 12,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond, or 6 per cent in the discharge. From 1883 to 1889 there appears 
to be a lowering of about 0.25 root in Lake St* Clair which corre- 
sponds with an opposite change of "about 15,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond, or 7 per cent m the discharge. From 3889 to 1895 the level of 
Lake St. Clair shows a rise of about 0.15 foot corresponding to a 
change of 9,000 cubic feet per second, or 4 per cent in the discharge. 
Since 1895 there appears to have been no change except those due to 
the construction of the cofferdam at the Livingstone Cut in 1908 and 
its opening in 1912. 

Whether or not these are real changes is doubtful. But little is 
known of the accuracy of the gauge at St. Clair Flats in the earlier 
years. The first levels were run to this gauge in 1903, and the eleva- 
tion of its zero determined at that time has been used for all the 



358 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

earlier readings. Precise levels run in 1903 and again in 1917 show 
a settlement during this period of about 0.4 foot. It seems quite 
probable therefore that there was some settlement prior to 1903. The 
rise in the observed elevations of Lake St. Clair from 1887 to 1895 
shown on the plate may easily be due to such settlement. The 
changes prior to 1887 are not easily explained. From 1872 to 1883 
a rise is shown equal in magnitude to that caused by the cofferdams 
at the Livingstone Cut, and extending over a longer period, while 
from 1883 to 1889 there is a drop greater than this rise. There is 
no record of artificial changes in either river that will account for 
such changes in Lake St. Clair levels and it appears improbable that 
natural causes could produce such effects. The natural conclusion is 
that the records of Lake St. Clair levels prior to 1903 are of little 
value in determining changes in regimen in the channel between 
Lakes Huron and Erie. 

The comparative elevations of Lakes Huron and Erie offer no bet- 
ter evidence. While the net local supply of Lake Erie is only about 
10 per cent of its total supply, the percentage variation in the former 
is much greater than the percentage variation in the flow from Lake 
Huron, and hence the changes in elevation of Lake Erie are not 
closely dependent upon the fluctuations of Lake Huron. This is 
particularly true on account of the comparatively small storage 
capacity of Lake Erie where a change of 10 per cent in the local 
supply during a year will change its stage about 3 inches. 

By grouping several years, for the purpose of reducing this varia- 
tion in net supply, and comparing the mean stages of Lake Erie with 
the elevations of Lake Huron for corresponding periods, there is 
found to be a somewhat close relationship between the two. Plate 
No. 53 shows the mean elevations of Lake Erie (June to November, 
inclusive) in chronological periods of four years from 1860 to 1918, 
plotted against the elevations of Lake Huron for the same periods. 
If. by such grouping, the variation in local supply were eliminated, 
and the ice effects, which will be discussed later, were to average the 
same for all groups, then these points would either fall in one line 
on the plot or by deviating therefrom would indicate positively and 
accurately the effects of changes in regimen of the channel between 
the two lakes. Because the variations in net local supply and in ice 
effects can not be eliminated in grouping the observations the points 
scatter and the indications are not conclusive. It will be noted that 
there is a slight tendency for the levels prior to 1889 and those sub- 
sequent to that date to fall on lines parallel to each other, with Lake 
Huron about three-tenths foot lower during the latter period for the 
same elevation of Lake Erie. This is not well established, however, 
as the stages during the two periods do not overlap, and a single line 
through all observations fits almost as well. Whether or not there 
has been any marked change in the level of Lake Huron due to 
change in regimen of its outflow channel is still a mooted question 
and probably will remain so unless the stages of the lakes should 
return to the high levels of the eighties. It is reasonably certain, 
however, that there has been no great amount of change in the dis- 
charging capacity of the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers. 

Niagara River. — The natural outlet from Lake Erie is through 
the Niagara River. The outflow is controlled by the section of river 
about 19 miles lon^ with a fall of some 10 feet between Lake Erie 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 359 

and the first cascade above Niagara Falls. The outflow is usually 
considered as that over a free overfall weir, depending entirely upon 
the elevation of Lake Erie, but this is not strictly true. A more 
accurate conception is that of flow over a submerged weir with its 
headwater in Lake Erie and its tail-water the river from the vicinity 
of Austin Street to the first cascade. As the upper portion of the 
river lies through limestone rock, natural changes in regimen must 
be very slow, and are inappreciable since the establishment of gauges 
on the lakes. Measurements of the flow have been made at three sec- 
tions in the years 1899, 1900, 1907, 1908, and 1913. The accepted 
equation for the flow of the river is — 

Discharge cubic feet per second, Niagara River=3904(H-558.37) 3 / 2 

in which H is the elevation above sea level on the Buffalo gauge. 

This formula is not quite accurate during rapidly changing stages, 
as the flow is affected by the elevation of the water surface in the 
river below Austin Street and owing to the storage capacity in the 
Niagara River above the Falls the stage at Austin Street does not 
respond instantly to changes in elevation of Lake Erie at Buffalo. 
For a change in the elevation of the water surface of 0.10 foot 
at Austin Street with respect to Lake Erie stages, the discharge is 
affected by approximately three- fourths of 1 per cent. 

St. Lawrence River. — The natural outflow from Lake Ontario is 
through the St. Lawrence River. The first 63 miles of this river from 
Lake Ontario to Ogdensburg is broad and deep, with but little fall, 
and may be regarded as an arm of the lake. A short distance below 
Ogdensburg are the Galop Rapids, the first of the series of rapids 
by means of which the water falls 240 feet to sea level. The Galop 
Rapids, with a fall of some 16 feet, form the weir controlling the 
outflow from Lake Ontario. This weir is considered of the free over- 
fall type, inasmuch as changes in the elevation of the water surface 
below have no appreciable effect upon its discharging capacity. 

The discharging capacity of the St. Lawrence River has changed 
from time to time, due to improvements for navigation. Previous 
to 1883 the records of gauge heights on the river are not sufficiently 
complete to determine the relationship between the slope and the 
discharge with any degree of certainty. In 1884 the deepening of 
the canals and the reconstruction of the locks began and for several 
3^ears conditions were in a transitory state. By 1888 a condition of 
relative stability was reached, and conditions remained practically 
constant until 1897. In 1897 work was begun on the North Cut at 
the head of the Galop Rapids, where a cofferdam was built and the 
channel was excavated in the dry. Late in 1899 the cofferdam was 
cut, and in May, 1900, the North Cut was opened to navigation. In 
September and October, 1903, the channel between Adams and Galop 
Islands, known as the Gut, was closed by a dam which materially 
reduced the flow of the river. Since 1904 there have been no known 
changes affecting the outflow from Lake Ontario. 

Measurements of discharge have been made bv the Lake Survev 
Office in six separate seasons, namely, 1900, 1901, 1908, 1911, 1913, 
and 1914. The first two were before the construction of the Gut Dam 
and the last four subsequent thereto. By means of the measurements 



360 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

and the records of gauges on the river discharge equations have been 
determined in the Lake Survey Office representing the relationship 
between the volume of flow and Lake Ontario stages subsequent to 
1887. This period has been divided into four epochs, the first, 1888- 
1897, being the condition following the completion of St. Lawrence 
Canals and prior to the work on the North Cut ; the second, 1899- 
1900, being the condition while the cofferdam was in place around 
the North Cut; the third, 1900-1902, being the condition just prior 
to the construction of the Gut Dam; and the fourth, 1904 to date, 
being the present condition. The equations of discharge of the St. 
Lawrence River for the four epochs are as follows : 

1888-1897, discharge cubic feet per second = 3729 (H-229.53) 3 / 2 
1898-1899, discharge cubic feet per second = 3650 (H-229.44) 3 / 2 
1900-1902, discharge cubic feet per second = 3728 (H-229.50) 3 / 2 
1904-1918, discharge cubic feet per second = 3428 (H-229.13) 3 / 2 
in which H is the elevation above sea level on the Oswego gauge. 

3. EFFECT OF ICE ON RIVER FLOW AND LAKE LEVELS. 

The equations for determining the flow through the various con- 
necting rivers of the Great Lakes system apply only during open- 
season conditions. During the winter months, when there is more or 
less ice in the rivers, the flow is retarded, at times as much as 50 per 
cent of the normal flow, and during these periods the equations do 
not give the discharge. There are methods, however, by which an 
approximation to the flow during ice periods may be made. 

St. Marys River ice effects. — The retardation of flow in the St. 
Marys River is due to the ice cover on the river from Lake Superior 
to the head of the rapids, ice jams in the rapids occurring infre- 
quently, if at all. It can be shown that during the winter months 
the elevation of the gauge at the head of the rapids (southwestern 
pier) averages about 0.13 foot lower than it does in the summer for 
the same stage of Lake Superior. This corresponds to a retardation 
in the flow of the river of about 2,800 cubic feet per second for these 
three months. The effect on the level of Lake Superior is very small, 
amounting at most to a few hundredths of a foot. 

St. Clair-Detroit River ice effects. — The St. Clair and the Detroit 
Rivers are normally covered with ice during the winter months, ex- 
cept in the vicinity of Port Huron and of Detroit, where the ice is 
broken up by ferry boats. In addition to the normal ice cover, jams 
or blockades are of frequent occurrence, and at times hold back large 
quantities of water. Blockades usually form in the Detroit River in 
late December or early January, followed in February and March by 
ice jams in the St. Clair River. These latter continue into April and 
occasionally into May. It has been reported that in 1819 and in 1840 
the St. Clair River was blocked with ice in June. After the breaking 
of the blockade in the St. Clair River each year there is frequently a 
blockade of short duration in the Detroit River. 

If both the St. Clair and the Detroit Rivers were never blocked 
with ice at the same time, the actual flow through the rivers could be 
computed by means of the equation for that river which was free of 
ice. It appears probable, however, that this condition rarely exists, 
although it is unusual for large blockades to appear in both rivers at 
once. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 361 

During the winter of 1900-01 measurements of the flow in the St. 
Clair River were made while the river was blocked with ice. From 
these observations combined with those made under ice- free condi- 
tions, the flow of the river has been referred to the stage at the Grand 
Trunk Railway gauge (G. T. R.) and to the fall from that gauge to 
the gauge at the mouth of Black River (M. B. R.). The flow is ex- 
pressed by the empirical formula : 

Discharge cubic feet per seconds (G. T. R.-M. B. R.) - 4 
(239750+20320 (G. T. R.-579.0) ) . 

This equation may be used for computing the flow of the river dur- 
ing the winters from 1900 to 1906, inclusive, during which the mouth 
of Black River gauge was maintained. If there is no ice in the river 
between the Grand Trunk Railroad gauge and the Dry Dock gauge, 
the elevations at mouth of Black River may be computed from 
G. T. R. and Dry Dock. The Dry Dock gauge was maintained until 
the summer of 1909, when it was discontinued. 

For the years 1900-1902, during which period there can be no 
question of the accuracy of the Grand Trunk Railroad and the Mouth 
of Black River gauges, the average retardation of flow for six 
months, computed from these gauges was 24,500 cubic feet per second. 
For the same period a comparison of the computed discharges 
of the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers shows a retardation of 17,600 
cubic feet per second or 28 per cent too small. This difference is 
undoubtedly due to the presence of ice in both rivers at the same 
time and shows that a comparison of the computed discharges of the 
two rivers can not be relied upon for the determination of the full 
effect of ice. 

In the Detroit River the reach from Windmill Point to Fort 
Wayne is usually free from ice blockades, although there is normally 
an ice cover over portions of the reach. An empirical formula giv- 
ing the flow of the Detroit River in terms of the gauges at Wind- 
mill Point and Fort Wayne has been derived, and may be used to 
approximate the winter flow. This equation is as follows: 

Discharge cubic feet per second=(W. P.-Ft. W.)^ 
(192.900+25,850 (W. P. -574.0)). 

Using this equation for the period 1906-1918, the mean six months' 
retardation of flow is 17,600 cubic feet per second. The correspond- 
ing mean determined by a comparison of St. Clair and Detroit River 
discharges is 13,900. In this case the latter method gives results 21 
per cent less than the former. 

The average yearly retardation due to ice in cubic feet per sec- 
ond, as computed in various methods, is shown below : 

(a) By Grand Trunk Railroad and Mouth of Black River gauges, 
1900-1904 12,200 

(b) By Grand Trunk Railroad and Mouth of Black River gauges, 
1900-1909 9,980 

(c) By Windmill Point and Fort Wayne gauges, 1906-1918 8,810 

(d) From best data for each year, 1900-1918 9,790 

Mean 10,200 

It may therefore be assumed that the average yearly retardation 
due to ice in the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers amounts to about 
10,000 cubic feet per second for 12 months. 



362 DIVEKSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The maximum retardation of flow in this period occurred in 
April, 1918, and amounted to 92,400 cubic feet per second for the 
month. For the 5 days, April 22-26, inclusive, the retardation was 
115,300 cubic feet per second, which was 54 per cent of the normal 
flow for the stages existing in Lakes Huron and Erie. 

The determination of ice effects as described above shows that 
the average retardation of flow in the St. Clair-Detroit Rivers of 
10,000 cubic feet per second for the year is distributed as follows : 

Cubic feet 
per second. 

December 6, 200 

January . : 27, 500 

February 42, 500 

March 28, 000 

April 14, 300 

May 1, 500 

Total 120, 000 

(An average of 10,000 cubic feet per second per annum.) 

Ice in the St. Clair-Detroit River, by reducing the outflow from 
Lake Huron, raises the level of Lake Huron, and lowers the level 
of Lake Erie. When the ice goes out, Lake Huron has a supernor- 
mal elevation, and Lake Erie a subnormal elevation. The increased 
elevation of Lake Huron and the increased fall in the river causes 
an increased flow, tending to restore both lakes to the normal ele- 
vation. 

On account of the great area of Lake Michigan-Huron it takes 
a long time for the lake to lose the excess elevation caused by the 
ice. Ninety per cent will be lost in about four years. In 10 months 
about 32 per cent is lost. It is apparent, therefore, that Lake Huron 
is always at a higher stage, due to the annual ice blockades, than it 
would be if there were never any ice in the rivers. 

Lake Erie, on the other hand, has a relatively small area, and 
recovers its normal elevation much more quickly than does Lake 
Michigan-Huron. In 10 months about 93 per cent of the depres- 
sion caused by ice is recovered. 

On plates Nos. 54 and 56, curves A show for Lakes Michigan- 
Huron, and for Lake Erie the mean annual change in elevation com- 
puted from the monthly means of 50 years, 1860 to 1909. These 
curves correspond to a mean open season outflow from Lake Huron 
of 198,500 cubic feet per second, and to mean outflow from Lake 
Erie of 198,500 cubic feet per second plus 11,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond, the mean annual local supply, or a total of 209,500 cubic feet 
per second. 

If, through a sudden change of climate, the formation of ice in 
the connecting rivers should be stopped, the resulting annual curve 
for the first year is shown on plates Nos. 54 and 56, marked " C." 
This curve is based on the same mean local supply to both lakes, but 
owing to the excess elevation of Lake Huron, the mean flow out of 
Lake Huron and into Lake Erie is 204,000 cubic feet per second, 
while the mean outflow from Lake Erie is 215,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond. If the ice-free condition continues indefinitely with the same 
average net supply the lake levels will reach a new point of equilib- 
rium at which the outflow from each lake will be the same as for 
curves A. The annual fluctuation for this condition is shown by 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 363 

the curves marked " B." The mean yearly elevation of Lake Huron 
will be 0.48 foot less than it was under the ice condition, and the 
stage for every month will be less. Lake Erie will stand at the 
same mean elevation, but will be higher during February, March, 
April, May, and June, and lower during the other months than it 
was with ice in the St. Clair-Detroit River. 

On plate No. 55 is shown the fall between Lake Huron and Lake 
Erie as it exists under the present conditions, and as it would be 
Tinder the conditions explained above. It will be seen that the fall 
between the two lakes in one year without ice approaches very 
closely to what it would ultimately become under a perpetual ice- 
free condition. 

Niagara River ice effects. — With the data available at the pres- 
ent time, it is impossible to determine the retardation of flow through 
the outlet of Lake Erie, due to the presence of ice in the Niagara 
River. A few measurements of river flow made by the Deep Water- 
ways Commission in 1898 indicate that at times the retardation may 
reach 10 per cent, although it is usually much less. There is at times 
some ice lodged against the piers of the International Bridge and 
against the waterworks intake. The partial ice cover on the river 
between the bridge and Niagara Falls, together with ice jams in the 
vicinity of the Falls, undoubtedly cause some backwater. If an 
average retardation of 3 per cent of the normal flow for three 
months is assumed, the maximum effect on the surface of Lake Erie 
would amount to about 0.18 foot in depth, and the effect on the 
yearly mean stage would be about 0.07 foot. 

St. Lawrence River ice effects. — The effect of ice on the flow of 
the St. Lawrence River may be approximated very closely from 
records of the numerous gauges along the river. This river may be 
considered as a series of pools between which the rapids form meas- 
uring weirs. The three upper rapids have been calibrated. The 
initial weir, which controls the outflow from Lake Ontario, is 
formed by the Galop Rapids. Discharge over this weir may be com- 
puted by means of any gauge on Lake Ontario, by the gauge at Og- 
densburg, or by the gauge at Lock 27 of the Canadian Canals. As 
there is normally an ice cover from Lake Ontario to the head of 
the rapids, the gauge at Lock 27 is the most accurate measure of the 
discharge over this weir during the winter months. The flow over 
the second weir, Rapide Plat, is measured by the stage of water at 
Lock 24. For the third weir, the Sault Rapids, there are four gauges 
available. Immediately at the head of the Rapids is the gauge at 
Lock 21. At Lock 22 of the Farrans Point Canal there are two 
gauges, and at the foot of Rapide Plat is the gauge at Lock 23. The 
equation of discharge has been written in terms of the latter gauge, 
as the others appear to have been affected at one time or another 
either by settlement or by changes in the local conditions. While 
there undoubtedly is more or less ice between the gauge at Lock 23 
and the head of the Sault Rapids, yet an attempt to use any of the 
other gauges would introduce errors greater than the retardation 
due to ice. 

If any of the three weirs is blocked by ice, its discharging capacity 
for a given gauge height is reduced, and the flow computed from the 
observed elevation on the gauge will be too large. It is not likely that 
all three rapids will be blocked at the same time, and the equation 



364 DIVEKSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

giving the least flow approximates the actual discharge. This mini- 
mum flow subtracted from the flow as computed by the Oswego gauge 
gives the amount of water held back by the ice. This method tends to 
give results somewhat too small, as there probably is some retardation 
at all of the rapids simultaneously. The mean retardation of flow 
due to ice, computed in the manner explained above, for 29 years, 
1888 to 1916, is as follows : 

Cubic feet per 
second. 

December __, 3, 600 

January .___ 9, 900 

February 19, 100 

March 13, 800 

April 6, 400 

Total 52,800 

(An average of 4,400 cubic feet per second per annum.) 

If the outflow from Lake Ontario is reduced while the total sup- 
ply to the lake remains the same, the -elevation of the lake surface will 
rise and will continue to rise as long as the outflow is retarded by 
ice. When the ice goes out, the lake has an excess elevation. As the 
outflow is above normal the lake begins to lose its excess height. On 
account of the small area of Lake Ontario and the large outflow, the 
time necessary to lose this excess height is relatively short, and at the 
end of 10 months about 98 per cent will have been lost. 

On plate No. 57 curve A shows the mean annual fluctuation of the 
surface of Lake Ontario for 50 years. This curve corresponds to an 
outflow through the St. Lawrence Eiver of 237,600 cubic feet per 
second. 

If ice should cease to form in the St. Lawrence Eiver, the out- 
flow during the winter would be increased and the mean lake surface 
would fall, until a stage was reached at which the outflow during 
the year would again equal the total supply. When this condition 
is reached, the mean average fluctuations of the lake would be as 
shown by curve B on plate No. 57. This curve averages 0.21 foot 
below curve A, this difference being the average amount the surface 
of the lake is held up by the presence of ice. The fluctuation dur- 
ing the first ice-free year is shown by curve C. It will be noted that 
this curve joins curve B and coincides with it during the last three 
months of the year. This indicates that the storage of water in Lake 
Ontario on account of winter ice in the St. Lawrence River is prac- 
tically all discharged during one ice-free year. 

% 

4. HYDROLOGICAL DATA. 

During recent years the Lake Survey Office has compiled the rec- 
ords of rainfall in the Great Lakes Basin as reported by the volun- 
tary cooperative observers of the weather bureaus of the United 
States and Canada, and by means of a system of weighting the 
observations has determined the mean monthly rainfall since 1900 
for the drainage area of each of the Great Lakes. There has also 
been determined the mean monthly rainfall over the lakes themselves, 
in contrast to that over the land areas, by weighting observations 
taken at points along the shores. This appears to be the best 
method of arriving at values for such rainfall, inasmuch as there 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 365 

have been no direct observations over the water areas. On all of 
the lakes, with the exception of Lake Ontario, the differences between 
rainfall on the lake surface as thus determined and that on the land 
areas are small and appear to be accidental. In the case of Lake 
Ontario there is a marked difference, the annual precipitation along 
the lake shores averaging nearly 2 inches less than in the interior. 

Compilations have also been made of the flow of streams trib- 
utary to the Great Lakes, as measured and reported by the United 
States Geological Survey and the Hydroelectric Power Commission 
of Ontario, Canada, utilizing all the available data. The distribu- 
tion of these records over the drainage areas is not what could be 
desired, there being large areas in which no measurements have been 
made. This data is also subject to errors due to methods of meas- 
urement, instability of gauges, etc., and it is suspected from a study 
of the records themselves that corrections have been made to the 
discharge formulas from time to time without applying the cor- 
rections to values previously published, and that for some periods 
the discharge of certain streams as published has included the flow 
through by-passes or side streams, while in other years these have 
been omitted. 

From these data of rainfall and run-off an attempt has been made 
to show, as far as possible, the source of the water passing down 
through the Great Lakes and to show the correlation of the dis- 
charge measurements on the various connecting rivers by means of 
the meteorological data. The results of this analysis are embodied 
in Table No. 45, which has been compiled for a 10-year period, 
1905-1914, inclusive. In this table the quantities are not all of equal 
accuracy. The areas of the lake surfaces and the drainage areas 
are the results of very careful measurements from the best available 
charts. They are probably accurate within a small percentage. The 
rainfall in columns g and h are weighted means derived from ob- 
servations at several hundred stations, and probably are not largely 
in error. The rainfall on the lake surfaces has been taken the 
same as the averages for the corresponding land areas, with the 
exception of that on the surface of Lake Ontario. For this lake 
the observations at the shore stations indicate a mean annual rain- 
fall of 31.75 inches, which is nearly 2 inches less than the mean 
of observations in the adjoining drainage areas. This value of 31.75 
inches rainfall has been used for the water area of Lake Ontario. 
The run-off from the land areas has been expressed and computed 
as percentages of the corresponding rainfall. There is, of course, 
no fixed percentage relationship between rainfall and run-off, but 
the values here given are averages derived from weighted means of 
all observations within the respective basins during the period cov- 
ered, and give practically the same results as would be obtained from 
the data through any more complicated method of deduction. 

The amount of water flowing out of any lake must, of necessity, 
be the algebraic sum of the water entering the lake from the lake 
above, the local gross supply, the storage in the lake, and the water 
lost by evaporation. All of these factors are known with some 
degree of certainty, except the evaporation from the lake surface. 
Accepting the other factors as correct, this one may be computed, 
and from the reasonableness of these computed values the accuracy 
of the other factors may be judged. 



366 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER.. 

The outflow from Lake Superior has been taken from records- 
kept by the United States Engineer office at Sault St. Marie. The 
flow through the St. Clair River is computed by means of the Lake 
Survey equation for open-river conditions, and the result corrected 
by subtracting 10,000 cubic feet per second to allow for the retarda- 
tion of flow during the winter months. The outflow through the 
Sanitary Canal at Chicago is taken as 5,850 cubic feet per second,, 
which corresponds to the mean diversion during the period. 

The outflow from Lake Erie is the flow through the Niagara River, 
computed by the Lake Survey equation, corrected by subtracting 
1,500 cubic feet per second for the retardation due to ice in winter,, 
and by adding 3,500 cubic feet per second, the estimated flow through 
the Welland Canal and other outlets. The outflow from Lake On- 
tario is the discharge through the St. Lawrence River, computed by 
the Lake Survey equation for open flow, corrected by subtracting 
4,400 cubic feet per second for the retardation due to ice. 

The values for the evaporation, which are derived as residuals 
from the other factors, are found to be reasonably harmonious ana 
to agree fairly well with the very meager data of evaporation in. 
the lakes district. These values show beyond doubt that the dis- 
charges in the outflow channels of the Great Lakes as determined 
by the adopted discharge formulas are consistent with each other,, 
and that there is no ground for the theory advanced by some engi- 
neers that there is a large subterranean flow from Lake Erie to. 
Lake Ontario. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 367 









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368 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 



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DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 369 
5. EFFECTS OF PRESENT DIVERSIONS. 

The ultimate effect of diversions upon the level of a lake or body 
from which they are drawn is a direct function of the amount or rate 
of the diversions and the increment of discharge through the main 
outlet. When these values are known with some degree of accuracy 
the lowering effect of the diversions can be determined with equal 
accuracy. For the outlets of the Great Lakes, the equations of dis- 
charge have been determined for open-season flow by long series of 
measurements in the outflow channels, and the increments of flow for 
such conditions are well established. The effects of winter ice upon 
the average flow through the outflow channels can be roughly ap- 
proximated from direct measurements which have been made or from 
a study of gauge relations and slopes as has been shown in a preceding 
article, but the effects of ice upon the increments of flow is not deter- 
minable from existing data. In the discussion of ice effects an average 
retardation of ice has been applied to the open-season discharge values 
without regard to the stage of water in the lakes or the amounts of 
discharge. In effect this method considers that the increments of 
open-season flow continue through the ice season. In the following 
discussion of the effects upon water levels of diversions from the lakes 
and rivers, the increments of discharge determined by the equations 
of open-season flow have also been used without correction for winter 
conditions for the reason that the amounts of such corrections are 
indeterminate. It is reasonable to believe that the increments are 
smaller in the winter than in the summer and that therefore the 
effects of diversions are actually larger than herein shown. 

Diversions from Lake Superior. — With the exception of temporary 
withdrawals of water from Lake Superior for water supply of the 
cities around the lake, all present diversions from this lake are made 
in the immediate vicinity of Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., and Ontario. 
These diversions have been fully described previously in this report, 
those pertaining to the navigation canals in Section A and those per- 
taining to power development in Section C. The present diversions 
are estimated at about 44,000 cubic feet per second, of which 1,000 is 
used for navigation and 43,000 for power development. The water 
is all returned to the St. Marys Eiver just below the rapids, and con- 
sequently these diversions, even if uncompensated, would not, in the 
long run, affect the mean levels of the lower river or the lakes beyond. 
With conditions in the St. Marys Eiver as they were in 1896, Lake 
Superior would have been lowered nearly 3 feet by the present diver- 
sions. That the surface of the lake has not been lowered by this 
amount has been due to obstructions placed in the channel and to the 
building of compensating works. At the same time any appreciable 
effects on the mean annual levels downstream have been prevented. 

The building of the piers of the International Bridge in 1887 and 
the fills made along the bridge line, which closed some of the small 
channels among the islands on the north side of the river obstructed 
about 2,300 square feet of the cross-section of the river. In 1889 the 
power canal, constructed on the Canadian side, further obstructed 
about 1,600 square feet. In 1892 the dike built by the Chandler- 
Dunbar Water Power Co. for the Edison Sault power canal ob- 
structed the flow through spans 1 and 2 of the bridge. These various 
obstructions undoubtedly raised the level of Lake Superior, but their 
27880—21 24 



i 



370 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

effect can only be computed theoretically, as no measurements of the 
flow of the river were made until 1896. It appears probable that 
changes prior to 1896 had raised the level of Lake Superior about 
0.7 foot. Diversions in 1896 were as follows : 

Cubic feet per second. 

Navigation canals 400 

Lake Superior Power Co 3, 800 

Chandler-Dunbar Power Co 1, 065 

Total 5,265 

This diversion would lower Lake Superior by about 0.35 foot, 
leaving the lake level still three or four-tenths of a foot higher than 
it was before 1888. 

In 1901 compensating works were constructed on the Canadian 
side of the river above spans 9 and 10 of the International Bridge. 
As the cofferdam above these gates was not removed until 1914, 
these works shut off most of the flow that formerly passed through 
spans 9 and 10. 

In 1909 a series of measurements of the flow of the river was made 
from the International Bridge, and at the same time the flow through 
the various diversion canals was accurately determined. The diver- 
sions at that time were as follows : 

Cubic feet 
per second. 

Navigation canals 650 

Lake Superior Power Co 6, 130 

Michigan-Lake Superior Power Co 12, 300 

Chandler-Dunbar Power Co 980 

Total 20, 060 

For a stage of 601.85 at the southwest pier gauge the total flow of 
the river in 1896 was 75,000 cubic feet per second. For the same 
stage in 1909 the total flow was 75,100 cubic feet per second. It 
appears therefore that between 1896 and 1909 the lowering of Lake 
Superior, due to diversions of water, had been almost exactly com- 
pensated by obstructions to the flow, and that the level of the lake 
was still some three or four tenths of a foot above its normal for the 
period prior to 1888. 

In 1911 the United States built a cofferdam above spans 3 and 4 
of the bridge and a dike downstream from the north end of span 4, 
making a new headrace for the Government power plant. To com- 
pensate for the flow so obstructed sluice gates were erected along 
the lower end of the forebay. By the use of these gates the flow 
through these spans of the bridge can be maintained at a normal 
value unless the use of water through the power house should exceed 
the normal flow. 

In 1914 the question of increased use of water for power purposes 
and the construction of compensating works was brought before the 
International Joint Commission of the United States and Canada. 
The commission approved a plan calling for putting into operating 
condition the four gates built in 1901 on the Canadian side of the 
river, the construction of 12 additional gates extending from the 
south end of the four built in 1901 to a point above pier 5 of the 
bridge, and the construction of a dike above span 5 connecting the 
end of the gates with the dike of the headrace of the United States 
power plant. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 371 

The eight gates above spans 6 and 7 of the bridge were built by 
the Michigan Northern Power Co. October, 1914, to September, 1916. 
Since the completion of these gates they have been operated under 
the direction of the board of control created in accordance with the 
order of the International Joint Commission for the purpose of regu- 
lating the level of Lake Superior and, so far as practicable, con- 
trolling the flow in the lower river in the interests of navigation. 

The remaining four gates are now being built by Canadian inter- 
ests above span 8 of the bridge. The construction of the proposed 
dike above span 5 awaits the completion of the power development 
on the Canadian side to the full proposed use of one-half the low- 
water flow. 

When the compensating works are completed and the several power 
canals enlarged to their proposed capacity, it is expected that the 
needs of navigation can be served, a minimum of 60,000 cubic feet 
per second can be used for power and the level of Lake Superior 
can be regulated within a maximum range of 2.5 feet, and ordi- 
narily within a range of 1.5 feet, or between elevations 602.1 and 
603.6. 

The compensating gates built in 1901-02 on the Canadian side of 
the river above span 9 of the bridge, now known as gates 1 to 4, 
consist of Stoney gates of steel, each 54 feet 3^ inches long, and 12 
feet 11^ inches high, lifting vertically between piers, having clear 
openings of 52 feet 3 inches. The gates are operated by hand from 
steel towers erected on the piers. The piers are of concrete with 
brick facing and cut-stone starling, coping, and quoins. They are 
9 feet wide, 57 feet long, and 20 feet high. The sills are of oak, 
embedded in a concrete paving or apron. The elevation of the sills 
is 591.2 feet. 

Compensating gates 9 to 16, completed and opened in September, 
1916, above spans 6 and 7 of the bridges, are Stoney gates of the 
same type and dimensions as gates 1 to 4, with similar piers except 
that the latter are entirely of concrete. These gates are shown on 
photographs Nos. 169 and 170. 

Compensating gates 5 to 8, now under construction above span 
8 of the bridge, are of the same type and dimensions as the others 
except that the sills are at elevation 590.2 feet, or 1 foot lower than 
the other gates. 

There are three sluice gates in the United States headrace, built 
in 1911, which form a component part of the compensating works. 
They are Stoney gates of the same general type as those described 
above, each 34 feet 4 inches long and 15 feet high, with a clear open- 
ing between piers of 33 feet. The piers are of concrete, 16 feet wide 
and 28 feet long. They are provided with steel-roller tracks. The 
sills at elevation 588.07 feet are of oak, 12 by 24 inches, set in the con- 
crete apron, which is paved with vitrified brick. In connection with 
these gates there are two ice runs 16 feet wide with sills at elevation 
598.07 feet, which are closed by stop logs supported by concrete piers. 
There is also an overflow Aveir of concrete 150 feet long with its crest 
at elevation 603.07 feet. These gates are illustrated in photographs 
Nos. 52 and 171. 

Diversions from Lakes Michigan-Huron. — ■ Aside from small sani- 
tary diversions of purely local significance the only diversions from 



372 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 



Lakes Michigan-Huron are those of the Chicago Sanitary Canal and 
the Black River Canal at Port Huron. 

Chicago Sanitary Canal. — The Chicago Sanitary Canal has been 
fully described in Sections A, B, and C of this report. Its mean 
diversion for the year 1917 was about 8,800 cubic feet per second. 
The construction of the Calumet-Sag Canal is nearly finished. An 
additional diversion of 2,000 cubic feet per second through this canal 
is proposed. 

An ultimate diversion of 14,000 cubic feet per second through both 
channels is contemplated. 

Diversions of water from Lake Michigan into the Mississippi Val- 
ley result in a lowering of all water levels of the Great Lakes from 
the lower sill of the locks at Sault Ste. Marie, down to tidewater in 
the St. Lawrence River. The amount of lowering on each lake as 
derived from discharge formula adopted by the Lake Survey office 
is shown in Table No. 46 for various amounts of diversions up to 
14,000 cubic feet per second. The effect on the lower sills of locks at 
Sault Ste. Marie and in the lower St. Marys River is practically the 
same as for Lakes Michigan-Huron. The lowering at points along 
the St. Clair and the Detroit Rivers is somewhat less than for 
either Lake Huron or Lake Erie. Effects in the upper Niagara 
River decrease from Lake Erie to the Falls, amounting at Niagara 
Falls to about 60 per cent of the Lake Erie effect. In the St. Law- 
rence River the lowering effect varies considerably on account of the 
variety of cross-sections and slopes. The maximum above Corn- 
wall is on the lower sill of Lock 25 of the Canadian canals, and 
this effect is given in the table. It is claimed that the effect of a 
diversion of 10,000 cubic feet per second at Chicago on the level of 
the water at Montreal is somewhat more than eight-tenths of a foot, 
but this has not been verified. 

Table No. 46. — Lowering of lake levels in feet by diversion of water from Lake 
Michigan through the Chicago Drainage Canal. 



Amount of diversion at 
Chicago. 


Lakes Michigan- 
Huron. 


Lake St. Clair. 


Lake Erie. 


Cubic feet per second. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Low. 


Mean. 

■ 


High. 


2,000 


0.10 
.20 
.30 
.40 
.50 
.60 
.70 


0.10 
.20 
.29 
.39 
.49 
.59 
.68 


0.10 
.19 

.28 
.38 

.48 
.57 
.67 


0.08 
.16 
.24 
.31 
.39 
.47 
.55 


0.08 
.16 
.24 
.32 
.40 
.48 
.56 


0.08 
.16 

.24 
.32 
.40 

.48 
.57 


0.10 
.19 
.29 
.39 
.49 
.59 
.69 


0.09 
> .18 
.28 
.37 
.46 
.55 
.65 


0.09 


4,000 


.17 


6,000 


.26 


8,000 


.35 


10.000 


.44 


I2J000 


.53 


14,000 


.61 















Amount of diversion at Chicago. 



Cubic feet per second . 



2,000 
4,000 
6,000 
1 8,000 
10,000 
12,000 
14,000 



Lake Ontario. 



Low. 



0.10 
.20 
.30 
.40 
.50 
.60 
.70 



Mean. 



0.09 
.19 
.28 
.38 
.48 
.57 
.67 



High. 



0.09 
.18 
.27 
.36 
.46 
.55 
.64 



St. Lawrence River at 
Lock No. 25. 



Low. 



0.15 
.30 
.45 
.60 
.75 
90 

1.04 



Mean. 



0.14 
.28 
.42 
.57 
.71 
.85 

1.00 



High. 



0.13 
.27 
.41 
.54 
.68 
.81 
.95 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 373 
Elevations of the Lakes for the stages referred to in this table are as follows : 





Huron. 


Erie. 


Ontaro, 


Low 


579.6 
581.1 
582.6 


570.8 
272.3 
573.8 


244.5 


Mean 


246.0 


High 


247.5 







Black River Canal. — The Black River Canal, at Port Huron, 
Mich., has been described in Section B of this report. Its diversion 
is estimated at about 400 cubic feet per second. The water is taken 
from Lake Huron, just above the head of St. Clair River, and is re- 
turned to the river a few 7 miles downstream, at the mouth of the 
Black River. Such a diversion tends to cause a lowering of lakes 
Michigan-Huron and of the St. Clair River above Black River. 
The diversion, however, is so small that the effect is inappreciable. 
It is estimated to be about five thousandths of a foot or about one- 
sixteenth of an inch. 

Diversions from Lake Erie — Welland Canal. — This important 
waterway has been described in Sections A and C. The estimated 
diversion in 1918 was about 4,500 cubic feet per second, of which an 
average of 900 was used for navigation and the rest for power and 
sanitary purposes. This diversion lowers Lake Erie and the Niagara 
River directly, and, by reducing the backwater on the connecting 
rivers, it lowers Lake St. Clair and Lakes Michigan-Huron. It 
has no effect on Lake Superior, Lake Ontario, or the St. Lawrence 
River. The effect on each lake is shown in Table No. 47. 

Black Bock Ship Canal. — This canal is described in Section A. 
The estimated diversion is 700 cubic feet per second. As the water is 
returned to the Niagara River partly at the foot of Squaw Island 
and partly at Tonawanda the effect is limited to Lake Erie and Lakes 
Michigan-Huron. The magnitude of these effects is shown in Table 
No. 47. It seems probable that the construction of Bird Island Pier 
in 1823-1825, in connection with building the Erie Canal, caused a 
very appreciable rise in Lake Erie, but no data on this point exist. 

New York State Barge Canal. — This canal is described in Sec- 
tions A and C of this report. The present diversion is estimated at 
about 1,000 cubic feet per second. This water is diverted from the 
Niagara River and most of it eventually finds its way to Lake 
Ontario. The diversion causes a lowering of the upper Niagara 
River and has a slight effect on Lake Erie and Lakes Michigan- 
Huron. The magnitude of the effects is shown in Table No. 47. 

Diversions at Niagara Falls. — Diversions of water for power pur- 
poses at Niagara Falls, above the first cascade in the upper rapids, 
lower the level of the water in the Grass Island-Chippawa pool. 
This lowering extends in diminished amount up the river. At Aus- 
tin Street, Buffalo, it amounts to about one-fifth of the lowering at 
Chippawa. The effect of the lowering is the same as that produced 
by lowering the tail water of a submerged weir, the flow of the river 
being increased for a given stage, which results in lowering the head- 
water, in this case, Lake Erie. Through the discharge measurements 
and water-level records of the Niagara River it has been determined 
that diversions at Niagara Falls, above the cascades, increases the 



374 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

flow of the river for a given stage of Lake Erie by about 10 per cent 
of the amount of the diversions. 

Diversions below the first cascade affect the depth of water be- 
tween the point of withdrawal and the point at which the water is 
returned, but have no effect upon the levels above or below these 
points. The effects of the Falls and rapids have been fully described 
in Appendix C of this report. 

The power plants on the United States side of the river both draw 
their water from above the first cascade. The present diversion 
through the Niagara plant of the Niagara Falls Power Co. is 9,450 
cubic feet per second and that through the hydraulic plant of the 
same company is about 8,000 cubic feet per second. The diversion 
of the Ontario Power Co. is at the first cascade and does not have 
the full effect of an equivalent diversion from the Grass Island- 
Chippawa pool. Observations during the construction of the intake 
indicate that the effect is about 50 per cent of a like diversion from 
the pool. The present diversion by this company is probably about 
11,200 cubic feet per second, or an equivalent of 5,600 cubic feet per 
second drawn from the Chippawa pool. The total present diversion 
from this pool therefore can be considered approximately 23,000 
cubic feet per second. A diversion of this amount at mean stage 
would lower the Chippawa pool 0.59 feet and would increase the 
flow of the Niagara River 2,300 cubic feet per second, resulting in 
lowering the surface of Lake Erie 0.10 feet. This lowering, by 
increasing the flow through the St. Clair-Detroit River, would lower 
Lake St. Clair and Lake Huron by small amounts. The effects 
of the Niagara Falls diversions are given in Table No. 47. 

Diversions from Lake Ontario. — There are at present no direct 
diversions from Lake Ontario nor from the St. Lawrence River 
above the Galop Rapids. The only diversions to affect the level of 
the lake are therefore those at Chicago, where the water is perma- 
nently withdrawn from the drainage basin. These effects, which 
are determined from the increments of outflow from Lake Ontario, 
are shown in Table No. 47. 

It may be stated that the construction of the artificial dam closing 
the channel, known as " The Gut," at the head of Galop Rapids, 
which was built for the purpose of checking cross currents in the 
navigable channel of the river, has resulted in raising the levels of 
Lake Ontario at mean stage about 0.56 foot. This amount is about 
50 per cent greater than the lowering caused by the present diversion 
at Chicago, so that in so far as the levels of Lake Ontario and of the 
St. Lawrence River above Galop Rapids are concerned, full com- 
pensation has already been effected. Below the Galop Rapids the 
levels of the St. Lawrence are affected by the Chicago diversion, and, 
in addition, there are small uses of water for power purposes along 
the Canadian canals and at Waddington, N. Y., and a large diversion 
at Massena, which have local effects extending from short distances 
above the points where the water is withdrawn to where it is returned 
to the river. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 375 

Table No. 47. — Effect in feet of uncompensated diversions of icater from the 

Great Lakes. 



Diversion . 


Amount, 

cubic 
feet per 
second. 


Michigan-Huron . 


St. Clair. 


Erie. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Low. 


Mean. 


Higb. 


Chicago Drainage Canal 

Welland Canal 


8,800 

4,500 

700 

1,000 

50, 885 


0.44 
.02 

( l ) 
C 1 ) 
.01 


0.43 
.03 

0) 

C 1 ) 

.01 


0.42 
.04 

C 1 ) 
C 1 ) 
.02 


0.35 

.08 
.01 

0) 
.03 


0.35 
.09 
.01 
0) 
.05 


0.36 
.10 
.02 

0) 
.06 


0.43 
.22 
.03 
.01 
.10 


0.41 
.21 

.03 
.01 
.10 


0.38 
.20 


Black Rock Ship Canal 

New York State Barge Canal. . 
Niagara power companies 


.03 
.01 
.11 


Total lowering 




.47 


.47 


.48 - 47 


.50 


.54 


.79 


.76 


.73 













Diversion. 


Amount, 

cubic 
feet per 
second. 


Niagara River at 
at Chippawa. 


Ontario. 


St. Lawrence River 
at Lock No. 25. 




Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Low. 


Mean. 


High. 


Chicago Drainage Canal 

Welland Canal 


8,800 

4,500 

700 

1,000 

50, 885 


0.24 
.12 


0.23 
.12 


0.21 
.11 


0.44 


0.42 


0.39 


0.65 


0.62 


0.60 


Black Rock Ship Canal 














New York State Barge Canal. . 


.03 
.63 


.03 
.60 


.02 

.57 


' 












Niagara power companies 





























Total lowering 




1.02 


.98 


.91 


.44 


.42 


.39 


.65 


.62 


.60 









3 Inappreciable. 

Lake Ontario has. been raised about 0.56 foot by the construction of the Gut 
Dam, which is 50 per cent more than the lowering caused by diversions* at 
Chicago. 

Stages at the Lakes referred to in this table are as follows : 





Michigan- 
Huron. 


Erie. 


Ontario. 


Low 


579.6 
581.1 
582.6 


570.8 
572.3 
573.8 


244.5 


Mean 


246.0 


High 


247.5 







Massena Canal. — In 1917 and 1918 the St. Lawrence River Power- 
Co. constructed certain new works at the head of its power canal. 
These were designed to increase the head upon the power house and to 
prevent the ice troubles which customarily reduce the output each 
winter to less than one-third the normal open season output. 

The works affecting the river levels were a dredged channel through 
Dodges Shoal between Talcotts Point and Delaney Island, and a 
submerged w r eir across the South Sault Channel just downstream 
from the entrance to the Massena Canal. The dredging was done first, 
and it is estimated that it resulted in a lowering of the river surface 
two or three tenths of a foot at Locks 21 and 22 of the Canadian canals. 
The subsequent construction of the submerged weir resulted in a com- 
plete restoration of the original levels, and it is thought that eleva- 
tions in this part of the river are now a little higher than they were 
before the w T orks were commenced. The original effect of the diver- 
sion through the Massena Canal, and of the construction in the South 
Sault Channel near the canal entrance, have never been accurately 
determined. 



376 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 
6. EFFECT OF PROPOSED DIVERSIONS. 

The effect on water levels of the proposed increase of diversions 
through the navigation and power canals at Sault Ste. Marie will be 
completely cared for by the regulating works which are now in place 
or have been planned, and therefore needs no special mention. 

The only proposed change in diversions from Lakes Michigan- 
Huron, so far as known, is the increase to 14,000 cubic feet per second 
in the diversion through the enlarged Chicago Sanitary and Ship 
Canal, which is planned by the sanitary district of Chicago, provid- 
ing proper authority can be obtained. The increase to 14,000 cubic 
feet per second will add considerably to the present effect on water 
levels of this diversion, causing an additional lowering on all the lakes 
below Lake Superior of from two to three tenths of a foot with a 
maximum effect at Lock 25 on the St. Lawrence River of nearly 0.40 
foot. The computed effects of this additional division are shown in 
Table No. 48. 

The present diversion from Lake Erie will be increased upon the 
completion of new Welland Ship Canal, it being estimated that the 
new canal will require the use of about 1,000 cubic feet per second 
more water than is used for the operation of the present canal. Unless 
compensated for, this additional diversion will cause a lowering on 
Lake Erie of about 0.05 foot. For full capacity traffic on the New 
York State Barge Canal the necessary water supply from Niagara 
River, as estimated by the State engineer, is about 1,200 cubic feet 
per second. Adding the 500 cubic feet per second diverted down 
Eighteen Mile Creek for power development gives a total of 1,700 
cubic feet per second, or 700 cubic feet per second more than is now 
being diverted. The effect of this estimated increase upon lake levels 
is shown in Table No. 48. 

In Section D of this report the proposed future diversion for power 
development at Niagara Falls is given as 80,000 cubic feet per second. 
To obtain the best efficiency it would be desirable that this should all 
be diverted from above the first cascade. Assuming that 18,000 cubic 
feet per second would be diverted at the intake of the Ontario Power 
Co., and that this would have an effect on water levels equivalent to 
the diversion of 9,000 cubic feet per second from above the cascade, 
the effective diversion from the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool would be 71,000 
cubic feet per second. This is an increase of 48,000 cubic feet per 
second over the present diversion from this pool. The result would be 
a further lowering of the pool by about 1.25 feet. The effect on Lake 
Erie and the other lakes is shown in Table No. 48. 

All proposed diversions from the St. Lawrence River would be at 
points below the Galop Rapids. They would be of purely local effect, 
and the data is not at hand for computing the lowering they would 
cause. 

The effect on water levels of the several proposed increases in diver- 
sions, namely, from Lake Michigan at Chicago, from Lake Erie 
through the Welland Canal, from the Niagara River through the New 
York State Barge Canal, and from the Grass Island-Chippawa Pool 
of the Niagara River for development of power at Niagara Falls, are 
shown for mean stages of the Lakes in Table !No. 48. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER, 377 

Table No. 48. — Effect, in feet, at mean stage of proposed diversions from, the 

Great Lakes. 



Diversion. 


Proposed 
increase. 


Lake 
Michigan- 
Huron 


Lake 
St. Clair. 


Lake 
Erie. 


Niagara 
River at 
Chip- 
pewa. 


Lake 
Ontario. 


St. Law- 
rence 
River at 
Lock 25. 


Chicago Sanitary Canal 


5,200 

1,000 

700 

48, 000 


0.25 
.01 


0.21 

.02 


0,23 
.05 
.01 
.22 


0.13 
.03 
.02 

1.25 


0.24 


0.37 


Welland Canal 




New York State Barge Canal . . . 






Niagara Falls Power Co 


.03 j .10 












Total effect of proposed 
increases 




.29 .33 

.47 ] .50 


.51 
.76 


1.43 
.98 


.24 
.42 


.37 


Total effect of present diversions 




.62 








Sum 




.76 - 83 


1.27 


2. 41 - fifi 


.99 



















7. REMEDIAL WORKS. 



Practically all the commerce of the Great Lakes originates or ter- 
minates in improved harbors or passes en route through improved 
canals or channels where the draft of vessels is limited by the depths 
to which these harbors and channels have been improved. The 
larger vessels of the lake fleet are designed and built to utilize the 
full depths provided by the improvements. It is obvious that any 
lowering of the lake surfaces will decrease the limiting depths and 
consequently lessen the carrying capacity of the lake fleet. For this 
reason the diversions have caused and are now causing a serious loss 
to the commerce of the Great Lakes, the nature and extent of which 
is discussed in Section H 1 of this report. 

There are three general methods by which a restoration of depths 
on the lakes may be sought, namely, first, the deepening of all har- 
bors and channels affected by the artificial lowering of water levels ; 
second, the construction of regulating works in the outlets of the 
lakes to raise the levels of the lakes and to control them within fixed 
limits; and, third, the contraction of the outlets by means of fixed 
obstructions which will raise the levels of the lakes without greatly 
affecting their natural fluctuations.* 

The first method requires a large amount of dredging and the re- 
construction of several locks. In 1907 the International Waterways 
Commission estimated that the cost of restoring harbor and channel 
depths in the United States and Canada to care for a diversion of 
10,000 cubic feet per second through the Chicago Drainage Canal 
would be $12,500,000. At present prices this figure would be largely 
increased. No estimate of such restoration has been made in this 
investigation for the reason that the use of remedial works is con- 
sidered much more satisfactory and very much less expensive. Fur- 
thermore, deepening the river channels tends to increase the dis- 
charge of the lake above and thereby lower its level, thus increasing 
to some extent the undesirable condition which it is intended to over- 
come. 

The Board of Engineers on " Deep waterways between the Great 
Lakes and the Atlantic tidewaters," in its report of June 30, 1900, 
House Document No. 149, Fifty-sixth Congress, second session, 
presented a plan for the regulation of Lake Erie between fixed levels 
by works at the head of Niagara River.. It was proposed to build a 



378 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

combination of submerged weirs and stoney gates, by means of which 
Lake Erie was to be raised about 3 feet above the low-water level 
and held continuously within about 0.6 foot of the adopted level. 
The impossibility and also the undesir ability of such regulation 
are clearly shown in a report of the International Waterways Com- 
mission, House Document No. 779, Sixty-first Congress, second ses- 
sion. The water supply of this lake is so extremely irregular that 
its amount can not be predicted with any degree of certainty, and 
without advance knowledge of the supply close regulation can not be 
maintained. 

Any great variation above the proposed level would cause serious 
damage on low-lying lands adjoining the lake, particularly in the 
vicinity of Buffalo, where the fluctuations due to wind are now as 
much as 8 feet. Other objections expressed in House Document No. 
779 are that the regulating works would aggravate ice jams at the 
head of the Niagara during the winter season, thereby causing 
greater fluctuations in water levels at Buffalo with consequent dam- 
age to property, and that the closed season at Buffalo would be pro- 
longed by the holding back of ice fields in the spring which other- 
wise would pass down the river. 

It is possible to regulate Lake Erie within a larger range than 
proposed by the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, and if the 
capacity of the river were enlarged at low-water stage the regulated 
level could be lower. This, however, would not obviate the probable 
troubles with ice, and the regulation would so change the outflow 
from Lake Erie as to be detrimental to levels of Lake Ontario and 
the St. Lawrence River. Regulation of the level of Lakes Michigan 
and Huron, if feasible, would better conditions on those lakes and in 
the lower St. Marys River, but the change in outflow caused by such 
regulation would likewise increase the fluctuations in the lower 
lakes and rivers to the detriment of navigation. Moreover, the con- 
struction of regulating works in the St. Clair River must of neces 
sity cause a serious obstruction to navigation. 

A study of hydraulic conditions on the Great Lakes shows clearly 
the close interdependence of their levels and the system by which 
nature regulates those levels. Whether the system can be improved 
upon by human agency sufficiently to justify the construction and 
operation costs is problematical. Any change involving artificial 
storage to be generally beneficial would require cooperative regu- 
lation of all of the lakes and rivers, with an intricate system for 
balancing the variable and erratic supply from the various drainage 
basins. Such regulation would involve tremendous costs and the 
whole works would be more or less experimental. 

It is quite possible that regulation will ultimately be resorted to 
when the various interests about the Great Lakes have become more 
valuable and when experience, experiment, and further study have 
indicated more certainly its desirability. In such case regulation 
of Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River would possibly best be 
undertaken first. 

On the other hand, it is perfectly feasible to raise the surface of 
any of the lakes without interfering appreciably with its natural 
fluctuations or its average monthly flow, and hence without affect- 
ing levels on the lakes and rivers below. This is illustrated by the 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 379 

artificial raising of Lake Ontario, caused by the construction of the 
" Gut Dam" ; where, however, the building of this dam above low- 
water level has decreased the increment of discharge and increased 
to some extent the fluctuations on Lake Ontario. 

In the report of a special board of engineers upon waterway from 
Lockport, 111., to the mouth of Illinois River, House Document No. 
762, Sixty-third Congress, second session, are presented plans for 
compensating the levels of Lakes Erie, Michigan, and Huron for a 
diversion of 10,000 cubic feet per second at Chicago. These plans 
propose the construction of three submerged weirs in the upper 
Niagara River near Squaw Island and a series of six weirs in the 
St. Clair River, spaced one-half mile apart over a stretch extend- 
ing downstream some 3 miles from the mouth of Black River. These 
weirs are 4 to 6 feet high and are designed to raise Lake Erie 0.45 
foot or 5.4 inches, and Lakes Michigan and Huron 0.47 foot or 5.6 
inches. The estimated cost is $475,000, with a possible annual ex- 
penditure of $15,000 for maintenance. These estimates are based on 
prices of labor and materials much lower than now obtain. 

That this method of compensation is practicable and that the de- 
sired results can be obtained at a comparatively reasonable cost is be- 
yond question. Furthermore, structures of this nature would offer a 
minimum interference with navigation and would have little tend- 
ency to retard the movement of ice. 

To compensate for the loss of elevation on water levels above the 
head of Niagara River resulting from all diversions, present and pro- 
spective, would require, as shown in Table No. 48, the raising of Lake 
Erie 1.27 feet, Lake St. Clair 0.83 foot, and Lakes Michigan and Huron 
0.76 foot. This would necessitate much more extensive works than 
those planned in the report just referred to ; and because of the amount 
of back water required and the limiting sections in which to work, it 
might be necessary to adopt additional means of contracting the chan- 
nels than by weirs alone. 

There is a wide range in the matter of details and locations of com- 
pensating works that would be practical and would give the full com- 
pensation desired. The selection of the best and most economical 
method is largely a matter of engineering judgment. 

St. Lawrence River. — The diversion at Chicago is the only one which 
lowers the whole St. Lawrence River. At mean stage the lowering due 
to a diversion of 14,000 cubic feet per second is 0.66 foot at the head of 
the river and the effect is practically unchanged as far down as Ogdens- 
burg. Below Ogdensburg the river is a succession of rapids and pools, 
and the amount of lowering changes greatly from point to point. The 
value of 0.99 foot at Lock 25 is the greatest that has been computed for 
any point above St. Regis, although it is possible that a slightly greater 
effect may exist at some other point. Below St. Regis the stream flows 
entirely through Canadian territory, and detailed hydraulic data is 
not available. It is said that at some places in this part of the river 
the lowering is 15 or 20 per cent greater than at Lock 25. Below Mon- 
treal there are no rapids and the slope is small. The effects of diver- 
sion in this part of the river decrease toward the ocean. 

In this investigation no consideration has been given to the matter 
of compensating works downstream from St. Regis. For the reach 
between St. Regis and Ogdensburg the data is very scanty and any 



380 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

detailed study would require extensive surveys. The traffic on the 
St. Lawrence is comparatively small, being less than 5 per cent of 
the traffic on the upper lakes, and only about one-third of this is 
in United States vessels. For these reasons it was not thought ad- 
visable to make a detailed study of compensating works on the St. 
Lawrence River. In general, it can be said that such works are 
entirely feasible and present no especial difficulties of construction. 
At the head of each rapids an obstruction of some sort must be 
built, probably in the nature of a narrowing of the river. This will 
raise the water in the pool above. The increased velocity caused 
by the obstruction will do no damage, as there is no upbound navi- 
gation in any of the rapids, and the bottoms of all are composed of 
ledge rock or large bowlders which would not be subject to erosion 
by the moderately increased velocities. 

Proposed works at Ogden Island. — The New York & Ontario 
Power Co. is promoting a scheme for developing power in the " Little 
River" behind Ogden Island by rebuilding the old dam, removing 
the causeway, and enlarging the entrance channel, as explained in 
Section C. To compensate for the lowering of more than 2 feet, 
which the proposed diversion of nearly 30,000 cubic feet per second 
would cause in the pool between Lock 24 and Lock 25, the company 
proposes to build a training wall between Canada Island and the 
foot of Ogden Island, and also to construct a submerged weir be- 
tween Ogden Island and the head of the Morrisburg Canal. The 
depth of water on the weir is to be 22 feet at low stage. Detailed 
plans of the proposed works are not available, but it is believed thac 
sufficient compensation is not provided. The project is now before 
the International Joint Commission for investigation. 

Lake Ontario. — Fluctuations of stage are practically the same 
in Lake Ontario and in the St. Lawrence River above Ogdensburg, 
and in studies of this nature this part of the river can be considered 
to be merely an arm of the lake. 

It is required to raise the level of the lake 0.66 foot. The building 
of the Gut Dam has already caused a rise of 0.56, and it is very doubt- 
ful if compensation for the remaining tenth of a foot is worth while. 
If it is desired, it merely requires a further obstruction at the head 
of the American channel of the Galop Rapids. Because of lack of 
data on slopes and velocities at this point no definite plan or esti- 
mate can be formulated, but it is apparent that nothing extremely 
elaborate or expensive would be required. 

Niagara River. — The restoration of levels in Lake Ontario will 
also compensate for the lowering of the navigable portions of the 
Niagara River below the Falls. 

On the upper river it is required to raise the level 2.41 feet at 
Chippawa. This can be done by an obstruction above the first cas- 
cade. On the Canadian side this obstruction should be placed below 
the mouth of Chippawa Creek in order to maintain the full head on 
power plants drawing water from this creek and to preserve the 
navigable depth in it. For similar reasons the American end of the 
obstruction should be below Port Day. The preservation of the 
beauty of the American Falls requires that little or none of the 
obstruction should be so placed as to obstruct the channel approach- 
ing the American Rapids. This matter is treated more fully in 






DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 381 

Section E 3 of this report. These considerations indicate that the 
obstruction should extend from below Chippawa Creek north to 
within perhaps 1,500 feet of Port Day and then west to the head of 
Goat Island. 

With the construction of new Niagara power plants large amounts 
of excavated rock will be available. It might fairly be required 
as one of the conditions of the permits for water diversion that the 
companies place part of this rock in the river at designated spots. 
The required amount can easily be determined by trial if water gauges 
are maintained at Chippawa and Buffalo. The cost to the Govern- 
ment would be only that of inspection and supervision. 

It should be stated that during the past year material dredged 
from the new approach channel to Port Day has been dumped 
below the Port Day-Chippawa line and that this has raised the 
water level at Port Day. Study of the gauges shows that the effect 
of such dumping prior to March, 1919, has been to raise the water 
at Port Day about half a foot. This compensates for nearly one-half 
of the lowering which has thus far occurred at this point. It com- 
pensates fully for all the lowering caused by the American power 
companies. Spoil is being deposited similarly on the Canadian side 
by the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario. 

The obstruction described in the preceding paragraph would in 
a measure be similar to the submerged rock weir described on page 
34, House of Representatives Document No. 762, Sixty-third Con- 
gress, second session. It would be somewhat less regular in form, 
and would not extend across the channel leading to the American 
Falls. Moreover, it would be a less pretentious and expensive weir 
than the concrete weir proposed by the International Waterways 
Commission in Senate Document No. 118, Sixty-third Congress, first 
session, and would raise the Chippawa-Grass Island pool 80 per 
cent as much. Its location is less objectionable than that of the com- 
mission's weir, being downstream from Chippawa Creek and Port 
Day. It is also less objectionable, in that it will not cause as high 
water, and therefore will not flood low-lying lands in the vicinity. 
The weir advocated by the commission was designed to create a 
generous backwater effect on Lake Erie, while the obstruction herein 
proposed is designed to care for the Niagara River only, the sub- 
merged weirs near the head of the river creating the necessary back- 
water effect on the lake. 

Lake Erie. — Works which raise the Niagara River 2.41 feet at 
Chippawa will cause a backwater effect at Austin Street sufficient 
to produce a rise of 0.42 foot in Lake Erie. As the total lowering 
of Lake Erie caused by the present and prospective diversions is 
1.27 feet, works must be built near the head of the river sufficient to 
produce a further rise of 0.85 foot in the lake. 

Hydraulic studies showed that this could be accomplished by five 
submerged dikes or weirs built across the river abreast of Squaw 
Island. The first would be located 4,450 feet above the International 
Bridge and the fifth 2,150 feet below it, the other three being spaced 
evenly between them. At these sections the river is from 1,770 to 
2,350 feet wide, with maximum, depths of from 34 to 45 feet at mean 
stage, and with mean velocities of from 4 to 4.8 feet per second. 



382 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

There is very little navigation in this section of the river, as the 
greater number of downbound vessels and practically all upbound 
vessels use the Black Rock Canal and lock. The most restricted sec- 
tion is at the old waterworks intake about 8,000 feet above the bridge. 
Here the greatest depth is 13 feet at standard low water and the mean 
velociy is about 9.1 feet per second. No serious obstruction to navi- 
gation will occur if the depths and velocities at the compensating 
works are kept within these limits. 

The works actually designed consist of rock dikes 15 feet wide on 
the crest with 2 to 1 side slopes. Their crests are 15 feet below 
standard low water. Near one shore the dike is higher, extending to 
within 6 feet of the surface at standard low water. This high part is 
on the American side in the two upstream sections and on the Cana- 
dian side in the other three. Its length varies from 67 to 767 feet. 
The mean velocity over each of these dikes is 8 feet per second at mean 
stage. It will be observed that any vessel which can pass the water- 
works intake safely will have no difficulty in passing these works. 
Ice and drift will pass freely. 

The bottom and Canadian shore of this part of the river consist of 
ledge rock and large bowlders and will not be subject to scour. Near 
the Squaw Island end of each dike protection against scour will be 
needed as the material there is sand, gravel, and clay. 

The estimated effect of these works is to raise the river 1.9 feet 
at the upstream weir and to raise Lake Erie 0.85 foot. The hydraulic 
problems involved are very complex and do not admit of an exact 
solution. Several different methods of computing the effect have 
been tried and their results compared. It is believed that the figures 
given above are reasonable, erring, if at all, upon the side of safety .- 
When the works are constructed the effect can be closely watched by 
gauge comparisons and the desired amount of compensation can be 
obtained by small changes in the original plans. 

The weirs as designed contain about 185,000 cubic yards of mate- 
rial. The cost is roughly estimated at $2,000,000. 

Detroit River. — When Lake Erie is raised 1.27 feet by the two sets 
of compensating works in the Niagara River, which have just been 
described, Lake St. Clair will be raised 0.55 foot. As the total lower- 
ing of Lake St. Clair by the present and prospective diversions is 
0.83 foot, there remains 0.28 foot to be compensated for in that lake.. 
The further compensation needed on the Detroit River varies from 
0.28 foot at the upper end to zero at the mouth. In the dredged 
channels in the lower part of the river the lowering would not exceed 
one-tenth of a foot. This could be compensated for by an obstruc- 
tion west of Grosse Isle, but only at the expense of increasing the 
current through the channels where the present current causes con- 
siderable annoyance to vessel men. As the lowering is very small, it- 
will probably be most satisfactory to leave it uncompensated. 

From the foot of Fighting Island to the head of the river the 
resultant lowering will be from 0.10 to 0.28 foot. As the depths are 
ample in this part of the river, there is no need for any compensation. 

Lake St. Clair. — There are several methods by which Lake St. 
Clair can be raised the required amount of 0.28 foot. It is im- 
portant that this compensation should be complete, for Lake St. 
Clair is now the point of limiting depth in the Great Lakes water- 
way, and any shoaling there has very serious effects. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 383 

Submerged weirs in the deeper sections of the Detroit River below 
Belle Isle could be designed to produce the required effect, but 
would be somewhat objectionable on account of the increased and 
variable currents that would be created along the busy dock front 
of Detroit. Another plan would be the partial closing of the channels 
on the American side of Belle Isle and the Canadian side of Peche 
Island, with such additional contraction of the main channel as 
might be required. The channel north of Belle Isle is seldom used 
by anything but pleasure craft, and might well be closed except 
for a narrow channel which would permit the passage of the smaller 
boats, ice, and sufficient water to keep the American channel clean. 
To avoid unsightliness, a dam in this locality should be below low 
water or be built as an artistic causeway from the head of the island 
to the mainland. The principal objection to this plan is the danger 
that the increased velocities would scour the soft bottom of the main 
channel and thus lessen the compensation. 

The full details and estimates of compensating works in the De- 
troit River are not possible with the data now aA'ailable, nor is it 
possible, without a special survey and a thorough study of conditions, 
to say that a plan can be devised that will not be subject to serious 
objections. 

An alternative and probably a better and cheaper method of re- 
storing depths in Lake St. Clair would be by dredging of the chan- 
nels 0.28 foot deeper. This additional dredging would require the 
moving of about 800.000 cubic yards of material at a cost of perhaps 
$160,000. 

St. Clair River. — If compensating works on the Detroit River 
are omitted and the depths in Lake St. Clair are restored by dredging, 
the rise in Lake St. Clair caused by the Niagara works will be 0.55 
foot. This will cause a rise in Lake Huron of 0.16 foot. The un- 
compensated lowering will be 0.28 foot in Lake St. Clair and 0.60 
foot in Lake Huron. In the St. Clair River the lowering will be 
between these limits. 

On the St. Clair River below Port Huron there are a number of 
small towns and villages on both sides of the river. These have 
docking facilities for vessels drawing from 10 to 15 feet of water. 
The actual navigation at these ports is very small and the damage 
resulting from a small reduction in the available depths would be 
trifling. In any particular place a small amount of dredging would 
restore the original depth if it were thought worth while. 

There are also a few places where the main ship channel has been 
deepened by dredging and where a little additional dredging might 
be required to maintain the project depth. It is estimated that this 
dredging would not cost more than $50,000. 

At the head of the river the cities of Port Huron, Sarnia, and Point 
Edward are all important ports used by vessels of the larger type. 
The matter of maintaining the depths at these ports need not be 
discussed here, as the project suggested in the next paragraph for 
compensating Lake Huron will do all that is needed. 

Lake Huron. — To raise Lake Huron 0.50 foot by means of compen- 
sating works near the head of St. Clair River would require contrac- 
tion of this outlet sufficient to hold back about 15,000 cubic feet per 
second of flow at mean stage, or nearly 8 per cent of the natural 
discharge. 



384 DIVERSION OF WATEK FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

It is believed safe to assume that a minimum depth of 25 feet at 
standard low water and a maximum velocity of 4J feet per second 
would in no way prove detrimental to navigation. It is practicable 
to provide the compensation and to keep within the limits named by 
improvements in the St. Clair River below the mouth of Black River. 
A series of submerged weirs with crests 25 feet below low water 
would serve the purpose. It is estimated that 11 sets of weirs spaced 
about one-third of a mile apart and containing a total of about 
290,000 cubic yards of stone, will raise the level of the river above the 
upper weir an amount sufficient to back up Lake Huron the full 
amount required. Bank protection would be required at the ends 
of the weirs. The cost would probably not exceed $1,500,000. 

The preceding discussion of compensating works on the various 
rivers is based upon the idea of compensating for the greatest diver- 
sions that are now seriously contemplated. If it should be definitely 
decided that some of these diversions shall be limited to smaller 
amounts than those considered here, the magnitude and cost of the 
works would be correspondingly reduced. 

It has been pointed out that the construction of such works ought 
to be a tentative process. A certain amount of work should be done 
and the effect observed. Then more work added, and so on, until 
the required amount of compensation has been secured. For this 
purpose it is highly desirable that a number of automatic water 
gauges be installed at the critical points on the various rivers. These 
should preferably be installed several years before the work is under- 
taken and maintained continuously until long after it is completed. 
The gauges now maintained by the Buffalo and Detroit engineer 
districts and by the Lake Survey will be of great value for this pur- 
pose but will be quite insufficient. They need to be supplemented by 
additional gauges, and it is important that such additional gauges 
be installed long before the proposed work is undertaken. 

Several proposals not here discussed have been made for regulat- 
ing certain lake levels or for compensating them. Compensation 
without regulation is effected by fixed works which contract the 
outflow stream at the bottom or the sides or both. Contraction at the 
sides tends to increase fluctuations of level in the pool above with 
changes of discharge through the outlet. For this reason such works 
have been avoided as much as possible in the projects presented 
above, although they are somewhat simpler, and are frequently sug- 
gested. The term controlling works denotes movable structures 
which may be closed to effect compensation, and opened to lessen or 
eliminate it. Such are the Stoney gates at the Soo, and those planned 
for the head of Niagara River by the Board of Engineers on Deep 
Waterways. 

A proposal has been made to place several somewhat similar gates 
of large size within the head of Niagara River not far above the 
International Bridge, extending only part way across the river. 
Plans for these works are presented in the House Document No. 762, 
Sixty-third Congress, second session, page 35. It was proposed to 
operate these gates so as to reduce the night flow and increase the 
daylight flow of Niagara River, as well as permanently to raise the 
level of Lake Erie. Somewhat similar gates have been proposed for 
the St. Lawrence River, with a view to holding up the levels of that 







Photograph No. 172.— STEAM ER "B. F. JONES" IN THE POE LOCK. 
Length, 530 feet; breadth, 56.2 feet; depth, 32 feet; gross tonnage, 6,939. 




Photograph No. 173.— STEAMER " B. F. JONES" IN ST. CLAIR RIVER. 




Photograph No. 174.— STEAMER "J. PIERPONT MORGAN" ENTERING POE LOCK. 
Length, 580 feet; breadth, 58 feet; depth, 27.4 feet; gross tonnage, 7.161. 




Photograph No. 175.— ICE-COVERED PACKAGE FREIGHTER IN ST. CLAIR RIVER. 




Photograph No. 176.— PASSENGER STEAMER "TIONESTA" IN ST. CLAIR RIVER. 
Length, 340 feet; breadth, 45.2 feet; depth, 28 feet; gross tonnage, 4,329. 




Photograph No. 177.— PASSENGER STEAMER "NORTH WEST" IN ST. CLAIR RIVER. 
Length, 358.5 feet; breadth, 44 feet; depth, 23.2 feet; gross tonnage, 4,244. 




Photograph No. 178.— GOVERN M ENT SURVEY STEAMERS IN CLEVELAND HARBOR. 




Photograph No. 179.— LIGHTSH I P IN LAKE ST. CLAIR. 




Photograph No. 180. — A WHALEBACK OR "PIG," LIGHT 




Photograph No. 181.— A WHALEBACK, LOADED. 
This interesting type is now obsolete and fast disappearing. 




Photograph No. 182.— EXCU RSION STEAMER "TASHMOO" IN ST. CLAIR RIVER. 
Length, 302,9 feet; breadth, 37.6 feet; depth, 13.6 feet; gross tonnage, 1,344. 




Photograph No. 183.— TWO FREIGHTERS, PASSENGER STtAMER, AND YACHT 

PASSING IN DETROIT RIVER. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 385 

river and Lake Ontario, and also of "diminishing the flow of the St. 
Lawrence, when the Ottawa River is in flood, and increasing it when 
the Ottawa is low. While such regulations of river flow may be 
found desirable in the future, it is believed that the time has not 
arrived when projects for such regulation need to be discussed or 
their practicability studied. Accordingly, in this investigation no 
serious consideration has been given them. . 

In the preceding paragraphs the intent has been to indicate in a 
general way the character and costs of works which seem most prac- 
ticable for restoring and maintaining lake and river levels in the 
Great Lakes Basin. Surveys of sites and further study and design of 
works are necessary before construction is undertaken. It is be- 
lieved that experiments upon large-sized models of sections of the 
rivers and the controlling works would lead to improvements in de- 
sign fully justifying the expense. 

The works herein estimated have been designed to care for the full 
effects not only of present diversions but of proposed diversions. 
The intention is to compensate for losses of level, and not to raise 
levels above normal elevations. Accordingly the works should be 
installed a portion at a time, so that the parts completed at any given 
time will compensate only for the effects chargeable to diversions 
existing up to that time. 

W. S. Richmond. 

27880—21 25 



Appendix F. 
ECONOMIC VALUE OF DIVERSIONS. 



[Section H of Mr. Richmond's report.] 
1. EFFECT UPON NAVIGATION. 

The lowering of the lake levels, discussed in Section G of this re- 
port, causes a loss to the community by decreasing the load draft 
of the Great Lakes shipping and thereby increasing the cost of 
transportation. The principal loss is in higher freight rates imposed 
to offset decrease of revenue to the vessel owners due to less amount 
of cargo carried on each trip of the deep-draft vessels. An attempt 
will be made to evaluate the loss caused by a lowering of one-tenth 
of a foot. 

The interlake navigation channels, as improved and maintained 
by the United States, are now actually 20 to 22 feet deep at low- 
water datums, 2 feet below the mean levels of Lakes Michigan- 
Huron, and 1 foot below the mean level of Lake Superior. They 
may be enumerated as follows : Interlake channels, St. Marys River, 
approach above canals and locks; St. Marys Falls Canals and Locks ; 
St. Marys River, channels and approaches below locks ; Grays Reef 
Passage, Lake Michigan; Lake Huron, at head of St. Clair River 
and St. Clair River; Lake St. Clair, and Flats Canals; Detroit 
River. 

The entrances to the terminal or principal harbors, as improved 
and maintained by the United States, are of corresponding depths. 
There are about 27 harbors where railroad connections and terminal 
facilities have been developed and where interlake commerce is car- 
ried on in vessels drawing 19 feet or more of water. The most im- 
portant of these are listed in Table No. 49, which also shows the 
total receipts and shipments from each port for the year 1917. 

Table No. 49. — Total receipts and shipments of freight for important ports of 

the Great Lakes in 1917. 

Lake Superior : Short tons. 

Duluth-Superior 52, 411, 824 

Two Harbors (Agate Bay) 10,773,241 

Asliland 9, 580, 085 

Presque Isle (Marquette Bay) 2,801,312 

Ports on the Keweenaw waterway 2, 183, 274 

Marquette 1, 191, 024 

Lake Michigan : 

South Chicago (Calumet Harbor) 10,269,304 

Milwaukee 6, 802, 864 

Indiana Harbor 2, 209, 165 

Chicago 1, 900, 687 

Lake Huron : 

Calcite 4, 188, 285 

Lake Erie : 

Buffalo 18, 925, 179 

Ashtabula 15, 992, 388 

Cleveland 14, 282, 687 

Toledo 13, 710, 238 

Conneaut 12, 936, 298 

Lorain 7, 529, 081 

386 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 387 



Lake Erie— Continue* 1. Short tons. 

Erie 4, 252, 810 

Sandusky 4. 067. 249 

Huron i 3, 833, 358 

Fairport 3, 461. 813 

Xone of the other deep-draft ports have a freight traffic amount- 
ing to 1,000,000 tons per year. 

Other lake harbors are of secondary importance. Their rail and 
terminal facilities or their location with reference to the source of 
supply or destination of bulk freight are such that their through 
commerce at the present time is inconsiderable. These harbors, 
which may be called local harbors to distinguish them from the in- 
terlake harbors, are used for many classes of local traffic by differ- 
ent sizes of vessels, and the classes of such traffic and the sizes of 
such vessels are subject to changes ranging from radical increases to 
marked decreases or even elimination. It has appeared impractica- 
ble to establish any standard depth for such local harbors. It must 
be understood that these harbors perform a very necessary purpose 
in handling local traffic, but the existing depths in the main ship 
channels are ample to accommodate all this commerce, and it is car- 
ried on by vessels of lesser draft than those carrying the great bulk 
of the through freight. 

Load draft is primarily controlled by natural seasonal fluctu- 
ations of lake levels, which consist, in general, of — 

On Lakes Michigan-Huron, and Lake Erie : A rise in March to 
June; high stage, July to September; fall, in October to December; 
lowest stage in January to February (navigation closed) ; range 
from 1J feet below to one-half foot above mean lake level. 

On Lake Superior: A fall, in March to April, to lowest stage 
(navigation being opened) ; rise in May to August; high stage in 
September and October ; fall in November to February ; range from 
three-fourths foot below to one-half foot above mean lake level. 

The draft of vessels in the interest of avoiding damage to vessels 
by grounding, as affecting insurance, and the accomplishment of 
transportation of the estimated amount of bulk freight to be de- 
livered during the season, is regulated to a large extent by notices 
of recommended drafts, issued by the Lake Carriers' Association, as 
shown in Table No. 50. 

Table No. 50. — Recommended draft for Lair freighter*. 1917. 




April 

June 

Aug. 23 

Sept. 5 to end ofsc 
son. 

1918. 

Apr. 9 

Apr. 21 

June ('■> 

Do 

Do 

Oct. 17 

Do 

Do 



20 feet for lakes St. Clair and Erie 

20 feet -1 inches for Lake Michigan; 20 feet 2 inches for Lakes St. Clair 
and Erie. 

20 feet 10 inches for Lakes St. Clair and Erie 

21 feet 10 inches for Lakes St. Clair and Erie 

21 feet for Lake Michigan 

19 feet 6 inches for Lake Superior 

20 feet 6 inches for Lake J-upcrior 

2') fpet 6 inches for Lake M ichiean 

20 feet (i inches for Lakes St. Clair and Erie 

20 feet for Lake Superior 

20 feel for 1 aire Michigan 

20 feet for Lakes St. Clair anil Erie 



Fut. 
572. 6 
573.6 

573. 6 

573 to 3 

572.6 



581.4 

601.5 
6G1.7 
581.6 

:*72. 2 
602 ■"> 
581 2 
572. 3 



388 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 
Table No. 50. — Recommended draft for Lake freighters, 1917 — Continued. 





Buffalo Harbor. 


Ashta- 
bula 
Harbor. 




Tate. 


Ponner 
Steel Co. 


Above 

Ohio 

Street 

bridge. 


Lehigh 
Valley 
and in- 
side 
docks. 


Lake 
front 
docks. 


Conneaut 
Harbor. 


Apr. 17 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 
20 
20 6 


Ft. in. 
19 


Kay 9 


18 6 


19 3 


19 4 


19 6 

20 6 


20 6 


June 7 




June 13 






19 8 

20 3 
20 






Julvl 












Oct. 17 


19 


19 


20 


20 


20 







No recommendations are issued for harbors at Cleveland, Lorain, 
Huron, Sandusky, or Toledo. 

It will be noted that the above recommended drafts for the inter- 
lake waterway are not uniformly consistent with rise and fall of 
water level, and it is to be stated that these four harbors, especially 
Buffalo Harbor, indicate the influence of inner harbor conditions 
upon load draft. 

Nearly all of the " bulk freight " traffic of the upper lakes is carried 
in large vessels of from 3,000 to 15,000 short tons cargo capacity. 
The vessels habitually load to a draft of 19 feet or over, depending 
upon the available depth. They carry the greatest possible load 
which they can get over the critical points in their journey, and 
every lowering of the lake level deprives them of that much carrying 
capacity. 

The following study of the effect on this traffic of one-tenth of a 
foot lowering of lake level is based upon data contained in the 
Statistical Eeport of Lake Commerce Passing Through Canals at 
Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., and Ontario, the List of Merchant Ves- 
sels of the United States, and the Annual Reports of the Lake Car- 
riers' Association. 

Since the building of the first 500-foot vessel, the Augustus B. Wol- 
vm, in 1904, of the ships expressly built for the bulk freight trade of 
the upper lakes only one has been less than 400 feet in length. The 
fleet now consists of 530 vessels with a total cargo capacity of 3,900,- 
000 short tons for a single trip. This fleet may be approximately 
classified as to size as in Table 51. 

Table 51. — Classification of Lake freighters by size. 



Typical dimen- 
sions. 


Num- 
ber of 
vessels 
in class. 


Cargo ca- 
pacity, 
short 
tons, at 
19 feet 
draft. 


In- 
crease 
of ca- 
pacity, 
in short 
tons, 
per 0.1 
foot of 
draft. 


Per- 
centage 
of total 
yearly 
freight 
carried. 


Regis- 
tered 
tonnage. 


Length 
over all. 


Beam. 


280 
370 
460 
570 
600 


40 
45 
52 
56 
60 


85 
124 
158 
121 

42 


3,000 

5.500 

7,500 

10, 500 

12, 000 


31 
47 
68 
92 
104 


10 
10 
34 
26 
20 


2,400 
3,500 
5,100 
6,800 
7,700 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 3S9 

As Table 51 shows, at the ordinary load draft the effect of a 
reduction of one-tenth of a foot is to reduce the freight capacity of 
the vessels by from 31 to 104 short tons. The weighted mean, based 
upon the percentages of the total yearly freight carried, is 75.6 short 
tons per tenth of a foot of draft, or 63 short tons per inch. 

Of the 42 vessels in the 600-foot class, eight are of more than 8,000 
tons register. Table 52 gives the dimensions of the three largest. 

Table 52. — Dimension of the 3 largest freight vessels on the Great Lakes. 



Name. 



W. Grant Morden 

Col. James M. Schoonmaker 
Wm. P. Snyder, jr 











Greatest 


Length 
over all. 


Beam. 


Depth. 


Regis- 
ered ton- 
nage. 


cargo ever 

carried, 

short 

tons. 


625 


59 


32 


8,974 


13, 721 


617 


64 


33 


8,603 


15, 148 


617 


64 


33 


8,603 


15, 292 



Short 

tons per 

tenth of 

foot of 

draft. 



107. 3 

113.2 
113.2 



Photographs Nos. 172 to 183 illustrate the various types of ships 
used on the Great Lakes. 

The amount of bulk freight shipped varies considerably from year 
to year. For use in these studies the mean of the four years ending 
in 1918 has been taken. The chief commodities included in this class 
are four — namely, iron ore, grain, limestone, and coal. The averages 
for the years mentioned were as in Table No. 53. 

Table No. 53. — Bulk freight carried in commerce on the Great Lakes. 



Iron ore, east to Lake Michigan . 
Iron ore, east to Lake Erie 

Total iron ore 

Grain, east from Lake Michigan 
Grain, east from Lake Superior. 

Total grain 

Stone, west to Lake Michigan. . 
Stone, east to Lake Erie 

Total stone 

Coal, west to Lake Michigan . . . 
Coal, west to Lake Superior 

Total coal 

Grand total 



Short tons. 



Percent- 
age of 
total. 



10,000,000 
45, 000, 000 



55,000,000 



10.3 
46.4 



56. 7 



2, 000, 000 
4,000,000 



6, 000, 000 



2.07 
4.13 



6.2 



1.500,000 
4,500,000 



6,000,000 



1.55 
4.65 



6.2 



13. 000, 000 
17,000,000 



30,000,000 



97,000,000 



13.4 
17.5 



30.9 



100. 



Bulk freight rates are subject to considerable fluctuation, and were 
notably variable during war conditions in 1917-18. The rates are 
determined by governing bodies (during the war period by the United 
States Shipping Board) as " base rates" to and from "modern 
docks." " Slow docks " pay whatever is necessary above " base rates." 
"Slow docks" are those not only deficient in transfer facilities but 
also those comparatively difficult of access in inner harbors or where 
depth of water is lacking. 



390 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 



During the war freight rates, like everything else, arose to un- 
precedented heights, reaching a maximum in 1918. What the future 
rates will be is, of course, unknown, but it appears to be the general 
opinion that they will decline somewhat, although a return to prewar 
conditions is not to be expected. At the beginning of the 1919 season 
rates declined 10 or 15 per cent below the 1918 level. For the purpose 
of this study rates have been taken at 75 per cent of the values in 
1918. Table No. 54 gives the rates prevailing in 1918. The column 
headed " Mean " contains the mean rate obtained by weighting each 
rate in proportion to the amount of traffic subject to it. 

Table No. 54. — Estimated Lake freight rates. 



Route. 



Ore: 

To Lake Michigan.... 

To Lake Erie 

Grain: 

From Lake Michigan 

From Lake Superior. 
Coal: 

To Lake Michigan. . . . 

To Lake Superior 

Stone: 

To Lake Michigan 

To Lake Lrie 



Rate per 

short 
ton, 1918. 


Weighted 

mean, 

1918. 


Adopted. 


$0.76 
.89 


} SO. 86 


SO. 65 


1.17 
1.53 


} 1.41 


1.06 


.58 
.48 


} .52 


.39 


.75 
.75 


} .» 


.56 



Revenue 
per 0.1- 
foot draft 
and 75.6 
short 
tons. 



$49. 14 
80.14 
29.48 
42.34 



Weighting each valuer in the last column by the per cent of the 
total freight movement which that commodity constitutes, the 
weighted mean value of the revenue lost through reduction of one- 
tenth of a foot in the available draft is found to be $44.57 for each 
trip of a loaded vessel. 

As the fleet of 530 vessels has a total capacity of 3,900,000 short 
tons per trip, the movement of the annual shipment of 97,000,000 tons 
requires 25 trips. A lowering of the lake level of one-tenth of a foot 
would cause an annual loss of revenue to vessel owners in 25 single 
trips of 530X25X44.57=$590,000, and this loss would have to be 
made good by an increase in rates. 

The normal schedule of lake freight vessels is to make 20 round 
trips per navigation season of about 240 days. This is not fully 
realized, due to delays caused by sea and fog, by repairs to machinery, 
and by accidents ranging from those requiring a few days for repairs 
to hull, to wrecking, and consequent withdrawal from the fleet. 

As a matter of fact, while the normal freight movement could be 
accomplished by the whole fleet making 17 " going trips " with iron 
ore and grain and stone, and by 8 "return trips" with coal, it is 
really accomplished by some of the fleet, notably the larger vessels, 
making 20 or more round trips, and the others making a lesser num- 
ber of trips, with frequent " return " trips without cargo. As the 
above figures are all based on weighted means, the correctness of the 
computation is not affected by these facts. 

There is one circumstance that tends to reduce the above figure a 
trifle. When the load draft of a boat is reduced by one-tenth of a 
foot, there is, theoretically, a slight reduction in the coal consump- 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 391 

tion required to drive the boat at its normal speed. The exact amount 
of this can not be determined, but it would seem that it must be very 
small indeed. 

On the other hand, there are several items of loss to vessel owners 
or shippers that have not been considered. If the average vessel load 
is reduced 75.6 tons per trip, then in 25 trips the fleet will carry 
1,000,000 tons less. In a busy season this- might lead to extra trips 
after the official close of navigation when insurance is higher and 
accidents are more frequent. It might even lead to some of the 
freight being shipped by rail at a great advance in rates. 

Further, there will be loss to the second-class shipping, the vessels 
drawing from 10 to 18 feet. Many of these trade into second-class 
ports where depths are much less than in the large ports, carrying 
the greatest cargo that the depth of water will allow. Any lowering 
of lake levels reduces their carrying capacity exactly as in the case 
of the bulk freighters. 

Again, there will be some vessels which are just able to carry their 
full loads after the levels have been lowered, but nevertheless have an 
appreciably diminished clearance under their keels. This leads to 
losses through reduced speeds and creates greater probability of dam- 
age by stranding or collision. 

These four items are all small. One is of a nature tending to re- 
duce the figure of $590,000 arrived at as the annual loss due to a one- 
tenth foot reduction in lake levels. The other three tend to in- 
crease it. 

Nearly all the traffic of the St. Lawrence River is carried on by 
vessels loaded to the greatest draft which they can take through the 
locks of the Canadian canals. The available information about this 
traffic is not so extensive as in the case of the upper lake shipping, 
but there is sufficient data to form an estimate of the result of lake 
lowering. 

The ships engaged in this trade are limited in size by the dimen- 
sions of the locks, which are 270 feet long from center to center of 
hollow quoins, 15 feet wide, and about 11 feet deep at ordinary low 
water. A typical vessel of this class is of 1.600 tons register: length. 
250 feet over all; beam, 40 feet; molded depth, 19 feet: maximum 
cargo capacity, about 2,500 short tons. These vessels habitually 
load to the greatest draft which they can get over the sills of the 
locks. Any lowering of lake levels causes a corresponding reduction 
in load draft and cargo capacity. A lowering of one-tenth of a foot 
reduces the capacity by about 23 short tons. 

As an example of the larger vessels built for the canal trade the 
steamer R. L. Barnes may be mentioned. She is 260 feet long over 
all, 43.2-foot beam, and 21.5-foot molded depth. Her registered ton- 
nage is 1.914 tons and maximum cargo capacity 3,500 tons. The de- 
creased capacity due to a reduction of one-tenth of a foot in draft is 
26.4 tons. 

During the war vessels of over 2,500 tons register were built on 
the Lakes and passed through the canals for use on the ocean. These 
vessels were not adapted to the lake trade and could not carry their 
full cargo through the locks, therefore they need not be considered 
further. 

The average freight movement on the St. Lawrence canals is about 
3,750,000 short tons per year. By far the greater part of this con- 



392 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

gists, in about equal proportions, of coal from Lake Ontario and 
grain from Lake Superior. The small remainder is chiefly lumber 
and package freight. In 1917 and 1918 the rate for coal was $1.50 
per short ton. The grain rate was $3.26 per short ton in 1917, and is 
understood to have been somewhat higher in 1918, although the 
exact figure is not at hand. For the years following the war the 
mean rate on these two commodities may reasonably be considered 
$1.80 per short ton. Losing this figure, the loss due to a lake lowering of 
one-tenth of a foot is 23X$1.80=$41.40 for each trip of a vessel. 

The number of vessels in the fleet and their total capacity is not 
known nor is the number of loaded trips. The maximum cargoes 
carried are about 2,600 tons. It is probable that the average does 
not exceed 2,200 tons. 

Adopting this figure, the loss due to one-tenth of a foot lowering 
of lake level is $41.40 for each 2,200 short tons of freight moved, 
or about $70,000 for the total freight moved per year. This is the 
loss to ships using the St. Lawrence canals caused by a lowering of 
one-tenth of a foot at any of the locks of those canals. 

Table No. 47, Section Gl, shows the total lowering of each lake 
caused by all the existing diversions. At mean stage the lowering 
is 0.47 foot on Lakes Michigan and Huron, 0.76 on Lake Erie, and 
0.62 at Lock No. 25 on the St. Lawrence River. If the whole bulk 
freight traffic of the upper lakes entered Lake Erie the annual loss 
caused by the lowering would be 7.6X590,000=$4,484,000. As 
a matter of fact, only about 88 per cent of the total traffic uses this 
lake and the loss to it is 0.88X4,484,000=$3,946,000. The loss to 
the remaining 12 per cent on Lakes Michigan and Huron is 0.12X 
4.7X590,000 =$333,000. The loss to the traffic of the St. Lawrence 
canals is 6.2X70,000=$434,000. The total loss is the sum of those 
three amounts, or $4,713,000 per year. 

The lowering at Lock 25 of the St. Lawrence canals is greater 
than has been observed at any other point along that part of the 
St. Lawrence River bordering upon the United States, and this 
lowering has been used in the above computation. It is credibly 
reported that the lowering is greater in the purely Canadian por- 
tions of the river. If the lowering said to occur at Montreal is con- 
sidered, the total loss will be increased from $4,713,000 to $4,758,000 
per year. 

Table No. 48, Section G3, shows the lowering that would be caused 
if all the diversions now contemplated should be added" to those 
already existing. The amount is 0.76 foot for Lakes Michigan and 
Huron, 1.27 for Lake Erie, and 0.99 for Lock 25, St. Lawrence canals. 
Computing the amount of this loss in the same manner as above 
gives a total of $7,825,000 per year. If the reported lowering at 
Montreal is adopted the amount is $7,913,000 per year. Capitalized 
at 5 per cent this represents an investment loss of $158,260,000. 

It is of interest to compute separately the effect of the Chicago 
diversion. The present diversion of 8,800 cubic feet per second 
through the sanitary canal lowers Lakes Michigan and Huron 0.43 
foot; Lake Erie, 0.41 foot;, and Lock 25, 0.62 foot. The total loss 
to snipping is $2,866,000 per year; this is $326 per year for each 
cubic foot per second diverted or $332 if the Montreal figure is used. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 393 

The power diversions at Niagara Falls, which are taken from the 
Chippawa-Grass Island pool, lower the upper lakes. An effective 
diversion of 23,000 cubic feet per second lowers Lakes Michigan 
and Huron 0.01 foot; Lake Erie. 0.10; and Lock No. 25, none. This 
amounts to a loss of $526,000 per year, or $23 per year for each cubic 
foot per second diverted. 

In order that the magnitude and importance of the freight traffic 
of the Great Lakes may be better realized, table No. 55 has been 
prepared. This is a comparison of the total net register tonnage of 
ships entering. and leaving the important ports of the world in the 
most recent year for which figures are at hand and also the total 
passing through the most important waterways. Figures for the 
Great Lakes are from the Chief of Engineer's Report for 1918, and the 
others are from the World Almanac for 1919. 



Table No. 55. — Net\ registered tonnage entered mid cleared from important 
ports or passing through important waterways in most recent year for which 
statistics are published. 



Port or waterway. 



Detroit River > 

St. Marys River and canal i... 
Duluth-Superior, Minnesota 

and Wisconsin i 

Hongkong-Victoria, China 

Antwerp, Belgium 

Hamburg, Germany 

New York, N. Y 

London, England 

Liverpool, England 

Lisbon, Portugal 

Buffalo, N. Y.i 

Shanghai, China 

Cardiff, Wales 

Ashtabula, Ohio ' 

Cleveland, Ohio » 

Constantinople, Turkey 

Buenos Aires, Argentina 

Ports on Tyne River, Scotland 
Singapore, "Straits Settlements 

Toledo, Ohio' 

Gibraltar, Gibraltar 

Suez Canal 



Year. 



1917 
1917 

1917 
1917 
1912 
1913 
1917 
1914 
1914 
1914 
1917 
1916 
1914 
1917 
1917 
1913 
1912 
1914 
1916 
1917 
1913 
1916 



Net 
registered 
tonnage. 



69, 267, 723 
65,307,233 

39,689,131 
34,000,000 
27,479,000 
26,189,000 
26,100,000 
23,459,000 
22,772,000 
18,543,000 
17,363,868 
16,819,000 
16,223,000 
15,014,069 
15,080,058 
14,319,000 
14,247,000 
13,241,000 
13,224,000 
13,121,849 
12,476,000 
12,325,347 



Port or waterway. 



Kobe, Japan 

Conneaut, Ohio ' 

Genoa, Italy 

Naples, Italy 

Two Harbors, Minn. 1 

Montevideo, Uruguay. . . 

Colombo, Ceylon 

Moji, Japan 

Southampton, England . . 

Rio Janeiro, Brazil 

Marseilles, France 

Rotterdam, Holland 

Piraeus, Greece 

Havana, Cuba 

Ashhland, Wis. 1 

Lorain, Ohio > 

Trieste, Austria 

Copenhagen, Denmark. . 

Milwaukee, Wis. 1 

Yokohama , Japan 

Cape Town, South Africa 
Panama Canal 



Year. 



1916 
1917 
1914 
1914 
1917 
1917 
1915 
1916 
1914 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1914 
1916 
1917 
1917 
1913 
1912 
1917 
1916 
1916 
1917 



Net 
registered 
tonnage. 



11,431,000 

11,397,071 

10,455,000 

10,153,000 

10,019,643 

10,000,000 

9,776,000 

9,552,000 

9,307,000 

8,689,000 

8,701,000 

8,523,000 

8,122,000 

7,364,000 

7,147,348 

7,029,832 

6,926,000 

6,925,000 

6,312,867 

6,300,000 

6,196,000 

6,009,358 



1 Ports and waterways are on the Great Lakes. 

From this it appears that the Detroit River is the most used wa- 
terway in the world, while the ship canals at the Sault are a close 
second. Either of these carries three and one-half times as much 
freight in the open season of about eight and one-half months as 
the Panama and Suez Canals together carry in a full year. Duluth 
leads the ports of the world by a decided margin, and 10 out of the 
40 leading ports are on the Great Lakes. This is the more remark- 
able as all of the other ports are ice-free throughout the year, while 
the Great Lakes' commerce is almost completely stopped for nearly 
a third of each year. 

It should be emphasized that the Great Lakes waterway is a na- 
tional asset which benefits all parts of the country. The annual sav- 
ing in freight rates due to the use of lake vessels in place of rail- 
roads exceeds a quarter of a billion dollars. The international su- 
premacy of the United States in the iron and steel trade is based en- 



394 DIVMR&KXN OF WAEEffc FROM GEEAT LAKES AND NIAGAKA K1VER. 

tirely on this waterway. No part of the world produces iron ore 
in such quantities or so cheaply as the northern parts of Michigan, 
Wisconsin, and Minnesota. The great coal deposits of Pennsylvania 
and West Virginia offer unequaled supplies of fuel. The great ad- 
vantage which these facts offer for the production of steel is handi- 
capped by the great distance, nearly 1,000 miles, that separates the 
ore from the fuel. That, in spite of this handicap, the United 
States has become the greatest and cheapest producer of steel is due 
very largely to the fact that the development of the bulk freighter of 
the Great Lakes has linked the iron mines with the coal supply by 
a system of transportation whose cheapness is not even approached 
by that of any other route. Millions of tons of freight have been 
transported at rates as low as five-hundredths of a cent per ton-mile. 
Railroad rates on similar traffic have rarely been as low as three- 
tenths of a cent per ton-mile, which is six times the lake rate. The 
magnitude of this industry may be judged by the fact that the total 
shipment of ore in lake vessels since 1855 amounts to over three 
quarters of a billion long tons. The record year was 1916, in which 
over 64,000,000 long tons were carried. Since that year the yearly 
movement has not fallen below 60,000,000 long tons. 

This is a condition from which the whole country benefits. The 
steel produced from this ore is used in every part of the United 
States and forms a part of almost every tool of our civilization from 
the needle to the locomotive. It is generally recognized that the 
volume of the steel trade is the best index of the prosperity of the 
country. 

The grain and coal traffic of the Great Lakes is less in magnitude 
than the ore traffic, but is nevertheless of very great importance. The 
grain movement varies from 200,000,000 to over 400,000,000 bushels 
per annum. This grain, about 70 per cent of which is wheat, comes 
from the grain-raising States of the Middle West and Northwest and 
from the western Provinces of Canada. It forms a very important 
part of the food supply of the eastern and southeastern parts of the 
United States and the eastern parts of Canada, while a considerable 
proportion of it ultimately goes to Europe. The freight rates are ex- 
tremely low, the prewar rate from Duluth to Buffalo being less than 
five-hundredths of a cent per ton-mile, while the rate for 1918 was only 
two-tenths of a cent per ton-mile. The Great Lakes thus form a very 
important factor in the distribution of the bread supply, their service 
being a benefit both to the western farmer and the eastern and south- 
ern consumer. 

Of the coal production of the United States, more than two-thirds 
comes from West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 
Practically none is produced from the great region west of the Great 
Lakes and north of the Missouri Erver, and a large part of the fuel 
supply for these regions is shipped by way of the Great Lakes. 
Canada is also largely dependent upon the United States for coal, and 
there is a considerable movement of coal by water to Canadian ports 
on Lakes Superior, Erie, and Ontario, while over 1,000,000 tons per 
year are shipped to Montreal from American ports on Lake Ontario. 
About one-quarter of a million tons are shipped down the St. Lawrence 
for distribution to northern New York and New England. The total 
shipments of coal by lake average about 30,000,000 tons per annum. 



DIVERSION OE WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AXD NIAGARA RIVER. 395 

Coal shipped from Lake Erie to Lake Superior gets a remarkably 
low rate, as it goes in vessels which would otherwise have to return 
in ballast for their next cargo of ore. In 1914 shipments from Buff alo. 
amounting to over 4,000,000 tons, paid an average rate of 0.0329 cent 
per ton-mile, which is probably a record for the cheap movement of 
freight. Lven in 1918 the rate was only 0.0555 cent per ton-mile. 

Coal is as necessary to modern industry as is steel, and in these 
northern latitudes it is as much a necessity of life as wheat. A very 
large part of the northern United States and more than half of Canada 
depends upon the lake trade for coal. This coal could not be carried 
by rail without a great increase in railroad equipment, and then only 
at a much higher rate. Anthracite coal delivered at Duluth by rail 
would probably cost $3 or $4 per ton more than if carried by water. 

2. EFFECT LPOX RIPARIAX INTERESTS. 

The shore line of the Great Lakes and their connecting channels is 
more than 8,300 miles in length. Over the greater part of this dis- 
tance the shore has the following characteristics : A sloping Wb beach " 
extends from some distance below the low- water mark to above ordi- 
nary high water. This beach may consist of sand, gravel, bowlders, 
or even of ledge rock. Behind it, in most places, is a sort of mound 
or barrier composed of material cast up by the greatest storms. If 
this material is sand it may be built up by the winds into dunes sev- 
eral hundred feet in height. Behind the mound the natural upland 
country is found, be it forest, arable land, or marsh. 

A lowering or raising of the lake level along most of these shores 
has no effect whatever on the value of this land. It merely moves the 
water line a few feet up or down the beach, covering or uncovering a 
little of the valueless sand or gravel. If the level is lowered the land- 
owner's holding of dry land is increased a trifle but he is none the 
richer thereby. No marketable grass or other crop will grow upon 
the barren strip thus exposed. He can build no permanent structure 
on it for, whether the stage be high or low, the greatest storms will 
hurl their destructive waves clear across the beach to the barrier in 
the rear. If the level is raised the owner looses a few square feet of 
land, but it is land which was of no value to him and he is none the 
poorer. 

The above statements hold true over by far the greater part of the 
shore line of the Great Lakes, but there are places where changes in 
the level of the lakes are a matter of interest to the riparian owners. 
In places marshy lands adjoin the lakes or their tributaries, and the 
value is increased by low stages of the lakes. The land in the delta 
of the St. Clair Eiver is a typical example. Here are many square 
miles of low, wet land on which grows a heavy crop of coarse, wild 
grasses. In wet seasons when Lake St. Clair is high these can not be 
harvested, but if the lake level is low the marsh dries out enough 
to carry the weight of men and horses and a considerable quantity of 
Avhat is known as " marsh hay " is gathered. This is not suitable for 
stock feed but has a small market value, being used largely as a pack- 
ing material. 

Large areas of land such as this are found around Saginaw Bay 
on Lake Huron, and around Maumee Bay on Lake Erie. Some 



396 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

is also found on the south shore of Lake Ontario and the east shore 
of Lake Michigan, and there is a very little on Lake Superior. 
Although this land amounts to a good many square miles, the 
increase of value at low stages amounts to very little, as the crop 
brings a very low price which barely pays for harvesting it and 
over much of this area marsh hay is not gathered at all. 

Wherever land of this type is found there is usually a small area 
of land of a much more valuable nature. This is rich, black muck 
which can be used to raise celery and other valuable truck in seasons 
of low water, but is too wet for successful culture in other years. A 
low stage of water is a very valuable asset to the owner of land of 
this type. The total amount of such land is small. The most 
important examples are at Irondequoit Bay on Lake Ontario and 
in some of the harbors on the east shore of Lake Michigan. 

Along the tributary and connecting rivers and the sheltered 
inlets of the Great Lakes the owner of the riparian lands is usually 
benefited by moderately high stages of water. In such places 
nearly every riparian owner has a boat of some sort, and small 
docks, boat houses, dredged slips, and similar structures are found 
in great abundance. These are usually built to suit the prevailing 
stages and lose a great deal of their value if the level falls to a lower 
stage. In summer-resort districts, such as the Thousand Islands and 
the St. Clair Flats, hundreds of such structures are to be found 
within a few miles. The advantage due to higher stages is not uni- 
versal even in such instances ; for in places like Buffalo, along Buf- 
falo Creek, the damage from floods is increased and sites for houses 
are made less dry and desirable. 

It has been the general experience of the War Department that 
years of abnormally high water cause but little comment, but that 
eA^ery season of unusually low stage brings a great number of com- 
plaints of damages done and requests for information as to the cause 
of these low levels and the possibilities of preventing them. 

With the data at hand it is impossible to evaluate these effects in 
dollars and cents. It is believed they do not form a very large or 
important factor of the problem of lake levels. 

3. VALUE TO CHICAGO OF ITS DIVERSION. 

There are no impartial studies available of the question of the 
value to Chicago of its diversion. 

The following statements are taken from the testimony presented 
by the sanitary district in the case of United States v. Sanitary Dis- 
trict of Chicago. The expert witnesses from whose testimony this 
data is taken were men of eminence in their several professions and 
their testimony bears evidence of considerable study. It must be 
remembered, however, that these statements were entirely of an ex 
parte nature and intended to advance the cause of the sanitary dis- 
trict in the suit in Avhich they were presented. 

From an analysis of the typhoid-fever rate for the 13 years pre- 
ceding the opening of the canal, and for the 13 years following, it 
was estimated that the people of the sanitary district were benefited 
to the amount of $19,237,000 per year by the reduction of sickness 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 397 

which the canal had effected. The average diversion during these 
years was 4,500 cubic feet per second. Hence the benefits received 
amounted to $4,270 per annum for each cubic foot per second of 
diversion. This, however, is hardly a measure of the value of the 
diversion, as the reduction in disease could have been accomplished 
in some other manner. 

If the privilege of diverting water were entirely taken away from 
the district, the work on the main canal, including the power house, 
would lose its value almost completely. The work on the Chicago 
River would retain part of its value. 

The value of the intercepting sewers, pumping stations, etc., would 
not be much impaired. The following figures, quoted from the pub- 
lished record of the evidence, give approximately the amount of 
money which has been spent, all benefit of which would be lost if 
the diversion permit was stopped : 

Right of way $9,700,000 

Construction of main channels and controlling works 19, 800, 000 

Joliet project 1, 600,000 

Interest, damages, general overhead (pro rata from total given in 

report) 8,000.000 

Calumet Sag project 14, 300, 000 

Electrical development 5, 300, 000 

Total 58, TOO. 000 

If the diversion of water were forbidden this amount of expendi- 
ture would become useless. Reduced to annual charges on a 4^ per 
cent interest rate, this amounts practically to $2,500,000. 

In addition the sanitary district would lose the 21,000 horsepower 
now generated at Lockport and the 3,350 horsepower generated at 
Joliet. This power would thereafter have to be generated by steam. 
The increased cost might well be $20 per horsepower per year, or 
about $500,000 per year. 

This makes the total loss due to the cutting off of the present diver- 
sion $3,000,000 per year. To this must be added the cost of so puri- 
fying the sewage of the district that it can safely be discharged into 
the lake and of filtering the water supply of the whole district. None 
of the witnesses testified directly on this matter, but their testimony 
furnishes a basis for a rough estimate. 

One witness outlined a plan for the treatment of the sewage of 
1,200,000 people residing in the Calumet division of the district so 
that it would be fit to be discharged into Lake Michigan. His esti- 
mate of the construction cost was $9,257,500 and of the annual cost 
of operation $419,000. If interest on the cost of construction is as- 
sumed at 4J per cent, and depreciation at 2 per cent, the total annual 
cost will be $997,000, or $0.83 per capita. As the population of the 
sanitary district is 2,764,000, the cost of sewage treatment at the same 
rate would be $2,300,000 per year. 

Another witness testified that the cost of proper water filtration 
works with a capacity of 520,000,000 gallons per day would be $13,- 
000,000, and the cost of operation $500,000 per year. Using the same 
allowances as above, this would give an annual cost of $2,530 per 
million gallons per day. For the present consumption of about 
680,000,000 gallons per day the annual cost would be about $1,700,000. 



398 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Combining these items we get the following figures for the annual 
loss which Chicago would suffer by being deprived of the use of lake 
water through the sanitary canal : 

Interest on abandoned investment $2,500,000 

Loss by change from electric power to steam 500, 000 

Cost of sewage treatment 2, 300, 000 

Cost of water filtration 1, 700, 000 

Total 7, 000, 000 

As the present diversion averages about 8,800 cubic feet per second, 
the value of each cubic foot per second may be taken as about $800 
per year. 

The sanitary district has a permit from the Secretary of War au- 
thorizing it to divert 4,167 cubic feet per second down the canal. The 
State law under which it operates requires it to dilute the untreated 
sewage at the rate of 3-J cubic feet per second for each 1,000 of tribu- 
tary population. Most sanitary engineers agree that this is a reason- 
able requirement. Under this law the required diversion for the 
present population would be about 8,500 cubic feet per second. If 
the limits of the permit were strictly enforced the sanitary district 
would probably find it best to treat its sewage in such a manner that 
the dilution effected by 4,167 cubic feet per second would be sufficient. 
Preliminary estimates of the cost of such a procedure have been made 
by the engineers of the district and are published in the record of the 
testimony of the case of United States v. Sanitary District of Chi- 
cago. Table No. 56 is based upon this testimony. 

Table No. 56. — Estimate of value to Chicago of its diversion. 



Item. 



Population to be served. 



Dilution required by State law, cubic feet per second 

Cost of disposal by legal dilution, capitalized at 4£ per cent 

Cost if treated and diluted by 4,167 cubic feet per second 

Difference in capitalized cost 

Difference per year 

Difference per cubic foot per second per year 



3, 000, 000 3, 600, 000 



10, 000 

$62, 825, 600 

$259,577,871 

$196, 752, 271 

$8, 360, 000 



12,000 

$77, 720, 070 

$296, 20S, 700 

$218, 487, 370 

$9, 280, 000 

$773 



4, 200, 000 



14, 000 

$80, 213, 900 

$333, 026, 400 

$252, 812, 500 

$10, 740, 000 

$768 



It will be observed that these figures for the yearly value of a 
diversion of 1 cubic foot per second are fairly comparable to the 
value of $800 derived from somewhat different premises. 

These values can not be given too great confidence. The evidence 
on which they are based was presented with the desire to prove that 
the value of the diversion was very great. The ex parte nature of 
this data should be kept in mind. On the other hand, it must be re- 
membered that these costs are based on the prices of materials and 
labor as they existed seven or eight years ago, since which time the 
cost of many of the items involved has more than doubled. 

4. VALUE TO PUBLIC OF EFFECT ON POWER PRODUCTION. 

In Section F of this report it has been shown that the diversion of 
20,000 cubic feet per second from the Niagara River on the American 
side as authorized by the present treaty is sufficient to operate a 
power development with a capacity of nearly 600,000 horsepower. 
The value of this diversion to the public is the difference between the 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 399 

selling price of this power and the selling price of the same power 
if it were developed in a steam plant without the diversion of any 
water. An attempt to estimate this value will now be made. 

The three best plans for using this diversion are those which have 
been entitled the " canal project," the " pressure-tunnel project," 
and the " compound two-stage project." The power output and costs 
of these three do not vary greatly and accordingly the mean of the 
figures given for these three projects in Section F-10 will be used. 
The construction costs given in Section F-10 do not include " de- 
velopment expense " or " original overhead expense," accordingly 
this cost has been increased 10 per cent to cover these items. The 
assumption that the growth of the electrochemical industries would 
bring the load factor up to 90 per cent has been made as in Section 
F-10. The costs of producing power given in that section did not 
include any profit to the company. The selling price of power will 
be fixed by some regulative commission and will certainly allow 
such a profit. The amount of 3 per cent. of the cost of the plant has 
therefore been added to cover this item. 

For computing the cost of developing this amount of power by 
steam, detailed costs were obtained from two of the largest compa- 
nies in the Great Lakes district which generate electricity in this 
manner. The means of the various items given by the two companies 
was adopted except that the fixed charges were increased by 60 per 
cent because it was estimated that the cost of building a plant to- 
day would be that much more than the cost of building the plants 
considered. 

Table No. 57 gives a comparison of the cost of steam-electric power 
with Niagara power. 

Table No. 57. — Comparative costs of steam and hydraulic power at Niagara 

Falls, N. Y. 



Item. 



Coal— 6 tons, at $4.50 

Other operation and maintenance expense 

Fixed charges (10 per cent on Niagara power, 13 per cent for steam-electric) 
Profit, 3 per cent of construction cost 

Selling price of power 

Selling price reduced to cents per kilowatt hour 



Cost per horsepower 
year. 



Niagara. 




These are prices for very large amounts of untransformed power 
sold at the power-house switchboard at generator voltage with a load 
factor of 90 per cent. The cost of transformation, transmission and 
distribution, as well as advertising and selling costs, must be added 
to these figures to get the price actually to be paid by the consumer. 
These will vary from a few tenths of a cent to 10 or 15 cents per kilo- 
watt hour, depending upon the nature of the customer's demand, but 
there is no reason why these items should not be substantially equal 
for steam or hydraulic power. The comparison can therefore be 
made directly from the figures in this table. 



400 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The saving due to the use of Niagara power instead of steam is 
$31.20 per horsepower year. The diversion of 20,000 cubic feet per 
second produces 526,000 horsepower (mean of the three projects). 
Then the total saving is $16,410,000 per year, or $820 per cubic foot 
per second per year. 

This is the value that the American diversion at Niagara would 
have if the full treaty amount of 20,000 cubic feet per second were 
used in the manner proposed in Section F. The value of the present 
diversion as now used is, of course, somewhat less. In spite of the 
fact that the efficiency of the present plants is less than that of the 
plants proposed, the cost of producing power is also less. This is 
because the present plants develop only the easiest and cheapest part 
of the total head, and because they were built very much more 
cheaply than present prices would permit. It is estimated that the 
selling price corresponding to those given above would be about 
$13 per horsepower year. The saving over the use of steam power- 
would then be $37.70 per horsepower year. The present diversion 
is about 17,560 cubic feet per second. This produces about 247,000 
horsepower. Hence the saving is $9,310,000 per year, or $530 per 
cubic foot per second per year. 

Data for the Canadian plants is not available, but it is believed 
that no great error will be intoduced if $500 is adopted as the average 
for all the plants at Niagara. As the total diversion is about 50,886 
cubic feet per second, the total saving due to the diversion of water 
at Niagara is, in round numbers, $25,000,000 per year. 

These figures represent the actual saving in money effected. There 
are other intangible benefits received by the public. One of these is 
the saving in coal. It is well known that the available supply of 
coal is limited and must ultimately be exhausted. Also at present 
the capacity of the coal mining and distributing system is scarcely 
sufficient to supply the demand for this fuel. A year and a half ago 
it proved for a time quite insufficient. If the power used at Niagara 
were produced from coal the annual consumption would be increased 
by nearly four million tons, which would cause an appreciable in- 
crease in the rate of exhaustion of the coal supply, and in the diffi- 
culties of mining and distributing the annual output of the mines. 

If the Niagara diversion were cut off the building of steam stations 
could replace the power, but only at a much higher price. The money 
loss would not be the only one. The public has been greatly benefited 
by the cheapness of Niagara power as well as by its quantity. The 
low price at which this power is available has stimulated the electro- 
chemical industries and made possible the development of new prod- 
ucts. Many of the products made at the Falls would not be pro- 
duced at all if power were not to be had at this very low price. 
These products proved invaluable during the war. 

At Massena, Lockport, 111., and other places where the water of 
the Great Lakes is diverted for power development the saving in 
money and in intangible items is similar in nature, but less in 
amount than at Niagara Falls. The data for an estimate are not at 
hand. It has been stated that the value of the water used for power 
by the Sanitary District of Chicago at Lockport is $70 per cubic 
foot per second per year. The weight to be given to this estimate 
is not known. 

W. S. Richmond. 



Appendix G. 

INTERNATIONAL AND INTERSTATE MATTERS 

INYOLYED. 



[Section I of Mr. Richmond's report.] 
I. INTERNATIONAL MATTERS INVOLVED. 

Historical. — Previous to the , appointment of the International 
Waterways Commission there was no international supervision of the 
use of the waters of the Great Lakes. In each country such works 
were built and such water diverted as was desired. Most of these uses 
were small, and no serious objections were raised, the effects on the 
other country being trifling in each case. The building of the 
Canadian canals in the St. Lawrence River caused decided changes 
along that stream, but at the time American interests on the river 
were very small and no protest was made. In the same way the de- 
velopment of waterpower at Waddington and Massina attracted little 
attention in Canada. The building of the north cut at the head of 
the Galop Canal aroused considerable talk on both sides of the Lake 
Ontario through fear that it would cause serious lowering of that 
lake. Later the building of the Gut Dam required the permission of 
the United States because part of it was located on this side of the 
boundary. None of these events led to the institution of any per- 
manent policy of control of international waters. 

The same is true of the early small power developments at Niagara 
and on the Welland Canal, and of the building and enlarging of the 
Welland and Erie Canals and of the ship canals on the St. Marys 
River. In all of these cases the damage done across the boundary 
line was small and usually unnoticed. 

Between 1890 and 1905 this state of affairs was radically altered. 
The construction of the Chicago Drainage Canal, and of the large 
power developments at Sault Ste. Marie and at Niagara Falls, 
aroused public interest in the use of lake waters, while the occurrence 
of unusually low lake stages in the early nineties alarmed the ship- 
ping interests. Studies of the relation between diversions and lake 
lowering were undertaken by the Government. The agitation led to 
the appointment of the International Waterways Commission in 
1902, and resulted ultimately in the negotiation of the treaty of 1910 
and the appointment of the International Joint Commission. 

General principles of control of diversions. — In the joint report of 
the International Waterways Commission, dated May 3, 1906, six gen- 
eral principles were laid down as " applicable to all diverisons or uses 
of waters adjacent to the international boundary, and of all streams 
which flow across the boundary." Principle? Nos. 4 and 5 apply only 
to streams crossing the boundary and have no bearing on questions 
relating to the Groat Lakes. The other four form so good a state- 

27880—21 26 401 



402 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

ment of the proper principles governing the use of the waters of the 
Lakes that they are here reproduced : 

1. In all navigable waters the use for navigation purposes is of primary and 
paramount right. The Great Lakes system on the boundary between the United 
States and Canada, and finding its outlet by the St. Lawrence to the sea, should 
be maintained in its integrity. 

2. Permanent or complete diversions of navigable waters or their tributary 
streams should only be permitted for domestic purposes and for the use of locks 
in navigation canals. 

3. Diversions can be permitted of a temporary character, where the water is 
taken and returned, when such diversions do not interfere in any way with the 
interests of navigation. In such cases each country is to have a right to diver- 
sion in equal quantities. 

******* 
6. A permanent joint commission can deal much more satisfactorily with the 
settlement of all disputes arising as to the application of these principles, and 
should be appointed. 

In the above the term " permanent diversions " is understood to 
mean diversions of water from the Great Lakes system to some other 
watershed (e. g., the diversion at Chicago), while "diversions 
of a temporary character" is taken to mean diversions of water 
which is returned to the Great Lakes system (e. g., the diversions at 
Niagara Falls). The term "domestic purposes" is understood to 
cover all ordinary sanitary uses. 

One more principle is needed to make a complete system for deal- 
ing with diversions from the Great Lakes. This might be worded 
thus: "Diversions of water from tributaries of the Great Lakes, 
unless the water is returned to the same tributary, shall be considered 
as diversions from the Lakes." 

About principle 1 there has been no real dispute. Even where the 
value of a stream as a water power is much greater than its value as 
a highway it has been recognized that the paramount right is that 
of navigation and that water power developments must be so made 
as not to hinder navigation. 

Principle 2 declares that each country can take what water it needs 
for sanitary and navigation purposes. As a usual thing the quantity 
required for such uses is comparatively small and the effect of the 
diversion upon lakel levels is nearly or quite negligible. In case the 
diversion is large, as at Chicago, the proper compensating works 
should be provided. The most important diversions now made for 
sanitary or navigation purposes are those of the Chicago Sanitary 
Canal, the Welland Canal, and the New York State Barge Canal. 
The Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal is a proposed instance of this 
type, and the time may come when similar diversions by the Canadian 
towns on the south shore of the Niagara Peninsula may deserve 
consideration. 

The validity of principle 3 has been substantially recognized in 
the settlement of the question of power diversion at Sault Ste. Marie. 
When the matter of large scale development of the water power of 
the St. Lawrence Kiver is taken up, this principle will no doubt be 
applied there. 

The present treaty with Great Britain does not apply this prin- 
ciple to diversions from the upper Niagara Eiver, but allows a diver- 
sion of 36,000 cubic feet per second in Canada and only 20,000 cubic 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 403 

feet per second in the United States. The reason for this inequality 
becomes fully apparent upon study of the report of the American 
members of the International Waterways Commission, dated March 
19, 1906. This report formed the ground work for the Niagara pro- 
visions of the treaty. The amount to be diverted on the Canadian 
side was fixed at 36,000 cubic feet per second with a view to allowing 
the companies on that side the amounts of water for which they then 
had works under construction. Similarly the amount allowed on the 
American side was limited to 20,000. The inequality of the diversion 
was i-ecognized, but it was considered better to preserve the Falls by 
keeping the total quantity as low as possible without causing losses 
to investors, than to preserve the equality of diversions at the expense 
of the Falls. The International Waterways Commission, in com- 
menting on this matter, said : 

The advantage is more apparent than real, since the power generated on the 
Canadian side will, to a large extent, be transmitted to and used in the United 
States. In the negotiation of a treaty, however, the point should be considered. 

When the treaty came to be negotiated, however, this matter was 
not included. The quantity of electric energy transmitted into the 
United States has been reduced from time to time as the market for 
power was built up in Canada, and it now appears to be a matter of 
comparatively few years before all such importation will be cut off. 
In this connection the commission classed the Chicago diversion and 
a portion of the Welland diversion with the Niagara diversions. The 
treaty did not thus group these, but treated the Niagara River above 
the Falls as a separate entity. 

Diversions for sanitary purposes, like that at Chicago, were not 
limited nor were existing diversions, such as this sanitary diversion 
at Chicago or the power diversion of the Welland Canal, as exist- 
ing at the time of the ratification of the treaty — to be considered 
when making further equal divisions of diversions. It is also to be 
noted that the diversions at Niagara, which were recommended to 
protect investors, were all planned to be returned to the river at 
the Maid of the Mist Pool, just below the Falls. In the treat}^ 
however, the point of return was not limited. Canada thus gained 
a further advantage over the United States, apparently not contem- 
plated by the International Waterways Commission, of 16,000 cubic 
feet per second over the 90-foot head of the Whirlpool and Lower 
Rapids. 

If the remedial works, described in Appendix C of this report, are 
built the situation will be completely altered, and there will no 
longer be any reason for an unequal division of diversions for power. 
Principle 3 should then be applied and the water divided equally 
between the two countries. 

The only place where the application of principle 3 leads to seri- 
ous difficulty is in the Niagara Peninsula. Here more than 3,000 
cubic feet per second is diverted down the Welland Canal for use in 
developing power. It has also been proposed to divert water through 
the Grand River, across the divide, to some point on Lake Ontario, 
near Hamilton. While a diversion of the same nature from Lake 
Erie to Lake Ontario on the American side is possible, and has been 
urged by certain parties, it is not an economically desirable scheme. 
The objections to it have been treated in Section C-8 of this report. 



404 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

An equal division of the diversion here would give the United 
States rights which it could not properly use. 

It should be remembered that a diversion from Lake Erie to Lake 
Ontario will not develop quite as much power as an equal diversion 
from the upper to the lower Niagara River, because of the larger 
losses in canals and tunnels. Furthermore, the adverse effect upon 
navigation of the diversion from Lake Erie is much the greater. 
For this reason it is believed that power diversion from Lake Erie 
should be limited strictly to that now existing and that the Grand 
River and the Erie and Ontario Sanitary Canal schemes should not 
be permitted. This will leave to Canada a small advantage over the 
strictly equal division called for by principle 3, but it is felt that 
this is better than to encourage further diversions of this character 
or, on the other hand, to attempt to shut off long-existing diversions 
where much capital has been invested. 

Principle 6 has been accepted by both countries, and the Inter- 
national Joint Commission has been in existence for several years. 

The principle that diversions from tributaries are to be considered 
diversions from the lakes is needed in the interest of clearness. This 
has always been accepted in the case of the diversions at Chicago. 
Both the Federal Government and the sanitary district speak of the 
flow measured at Lockport as being the diversion from Lake Michi- 
gan. As a matter of fact, the flow so measured, is partly diverted 
from Lake Michigan and partly from the various branches of the 
Chicago River — tributaries of the lake. The effect upon lake levels 
of a diversion from the river is exactly the same as the effect of a 
diversion from the lake. In this case the diversion from the lake 
itself is a diversion from a tributary of the boundary waters for the 
waters of Lake Michigan are not held to be boundary waters. 

The same condition exists in the diversion of the New York State 
Barge Canal, where the diversion is taken partly from the. Niagara 
River and partly from Tonawanda and Ellicott Creeks. Here the 
Niagara River is a boundary stream, and Tonawanda and Ellicott 
Creeks are tributaries. The works now being built to divert water 
from the Calumet River and from Chippawa Creek will bring about 
similar conditions as would also the proposed diversion of water 
from the Grand River. In all these cases it is believed that the 
adoption of the new principle would simplify rather than compli- 
cate the control and regulation of these diversions, whether by the 
Joint Commission or by the Federal, State, or Provisional Govern- 
ments. 

Lake levels. — Anything affecting lake levels is obviously an inter- 
national affair, for in no case can the levels of one of the Lakes be 
lowered without affecting both countries. This is true even of Lake 
Michigan, whose waters are not boundary waters, but which unites 
with Lake Huron to form what is hydraulically one lake. The di- 
version of water by the Sanitary District of Chicago has decreased 
the available draft of the Canadian ship canals and locks on the St. 
Lawrence River. The diversion of the Ontario Power Co. has re- 
duced the navigable depth of the channels approaching the Ameri- 
can ports of Tonawanda and Niagara Falls. Many other instances 
could be adduced where diversions made in one country have in- 
flicted damage upon the other country. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 405 

C ompensating works. — The construction and maintenance of com- 
pensating works is another matter which requires international ac- 
tion. In almost any case where works on a large scale are to be built 
the works themselves will lie on both sides of the boundary. The 
undesirable conditions which the} 7 are intended to correct exist on 
both sides of the boundary. Many parts of the Great Lakes system 
have been lowered by a number of different diversions, some made 
in the United States and some in Canada. It might be possible to 
compensate separately with works in each country for each separate 
effect, but it will be far more economical and satisfactory if as few 
structures as practicable be used, and if these are constructed jointly 
by the two Nations. The expense involved in these works would 
equitably be apportioned between them according to the extent of 
the lowering caused by each party. 

Preservation of Niagara Falls. — Another matter which is en- 
tirely of an international character is the preservation of the scenic 
beauty of Niagara Falls. This is a matter of equal interest to the 
citizens of both countries. The remedial works described in Appen- 
dix C lie on both sides of the boundary, and international coopera- 
tion is necessary for their construction. If the plan outlined in 
Appendix C of increasing the diversion around the Falls to 40,000 
cubic feet per second on each side and building a remedial weir is 
adopted, it is believed that the cost should be equally divided be- 
tween the two Nations. Further discussion of this matter is found 
in Appendix C. 

2. TREATY PROVISIONS. 

The present treaty. — In its report of May 3, 1906, the Interna- 
tional Waterways Commission recommended that a treaty be nego- 
tiated between the United States and Great Britain, limiting the 
diversion of water at Niagara Falls. On June 29, 1906, the Burton 
Act was approved. Section 4 of this act requested the President to 
open negotiations with Great Britain for obtaining such a treaty. 
After some delay the treaty was prepared, and it was signed at 
Washington January 11. 1909. Having been duly ratified on May 
5, 1910. it was proclaimed by the President on May 13 of the same 
year. 
JThe text of the treaty is as follows •- 

Treaty Series, No. 548. Treaty Between the United States and Great Brit- 
ain. — Boundary waters between the United States nnd Panada. 
Signed at Washington January 11, 1009. 
Ratification advised by the Senate March 3, 1909. 
Ratified by the President April 1, 1910. 
Ratified by Great Britain March 31, 1910. 
Ratifications exchanged at Washington May 5, 1910. 
Proclaimed May 13, 1910. 

By the President of the United States of America. 

A PROCLAMATION. 

Whereas a treaty between the United States of America and His Majesty 
the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the 
British dominions beyond the seas. Emporor of India, to prevent disputes re- 
garding the use of boundary waters and to settle all questions which are now 
pending between the United States and the Dominion of Canada Involving the 



406 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

lights, obligations, or interests of either in relation to the other, or to inhabi- 
tants of the other along their common frontier, and to make provision for the 
adjustment and settlement of all such questions as may hereafter arise, was 
concluded and signed by their respective plenipotentiaries at Washington on 
the eleventh day of January, one thousand nine hundred and nine, the original 
of which treaty is, word for word, as follows : 

The United States of America and His Majesty the King of the United King- 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British dominions beyond the seas. 
Emperor of India, being equally desirous to prevent disputes regarding the use 
of boundary waters and to settle all questions which are now pending between 
the United States and the Dominion of Canada involving the rights, obligations, 
or interests of either in relation to the other or to the inhabitants of the other 
along their common frontier, and to make provision for the adjustment and 
settlement of all such questions as may hereafter arise, have resolved to con- 
clude a treaty in furtherance of these ends, and for that purpose have appointed 
as their respective plenipotentiaries : 

The President of the United States of America, Elihu Root, Secretary of 
State of the United States ; and 

His Britannic Majesty, the Right Honorable James Bryce, O. M., his am- 
bassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary at Washington. 

Who. after having communicated to one another their full powers, found in 
good and due form, have agreed upon the following articles : 

Preliminary Articles. 

For the purposes of this treaty boundary waters are defined as the waters 
from main shore to main shore of the lakes and rivers and connecting water- 
ways or the portions thereof, along which the international boundary between 
the United States and the Dominion of Canada passes, including all bays, arms, 
and inlets thereof, but not including tributary waters which in their natural 
channels would flow into such lakes, rivers, and waterways, or waters flowing 
from such lakes, rivers, and waterways, or the waters of rivers flowing across 
the boundary. 

Article I. 

The High Contracting Parties agree that the navigation of all navigable 
boundary waters shall forever continue free and open for the purposes of com- 
merce to the inhabitants and to the ships, vessels, and boats of both countries 
equally, subject, however, to any laws and regulations of either country, within 
its own territory, not inconsistent with such privilege of free navigation and 
applying equally and without discrimination to the inhabitants, ships, vessels, 
and boats of both countries. 

It is further agreed that so long as this treaty shall remain in force this 
same right of navigation shall extend to the waters of Lake Michigan and to all 
canals connecting boundary waters and now existing or which may hereafter 
be constructed on either side of the line. Either of the High Contracting 
Parties may adopt rules and regulations governing the use of such canals 
within its own territory and may charge tolls for the use thereof, but all such 
rules and regulations and all tolls charged shall apply alike to the subjects or 
citizens of the High Contracting Parties and the ships, vessels, and boats of 
both of the High Contracting Parties, and they shall be placed on terms of 
equality in the use thereof. 

Article II. 

Each of the High Contracting Parties reserves to itself or to the several 
State governments on the one side and the Dominion or Provincial Governments 
on the other, as the case may be, subject to any treaty provisions now existing 
with respect thereto, the exclusive jurisdiction and control over the use and 
diversion, whether temporary or permanent, of all waters on its own side of 
the line which in their natural channels would flow across the boundary or into 
boundary waters ; but it is agreed that any interference with or diversion 
from their natural channel of such waters on either side of the boundary, re- 
sulting in any injury on the other side of the boundary, shall give rise to the 
same rights and entitle the injured parties to the same legal remedies as if 
such injury took place in the country where such diversion or interference 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 407 

occurs ; but this provision shall not apply to cases already existing or to cases 
expressly covered by special agreement between the Parties hereto. 

It is understood, however, that neither of the High Contracting Parties In- 
tends by the foregoing provision to surrender any right which it may have to 
object to any interference with or diversion of waters on the other side of 
the boundary, the effect of which would be productive of material injury to the 
navigation interests on its own side of the boundary. 

Article III. 

It is agreed that, in addition to the uses, obstructions, and diversions here- 
tofore permitted or hereafter provided for by special agreement between the 
Parties hereto, no further or other uses or obstructions or diversions, whether 
temporary or permanent, of boundary waters on either side of the line, affecting 
the natural level or flow of boundary waters on the other side of the line, 
shall be made except by authority of the United States or the Dominion of 
Canada within their respective jurisdiction and with the approval, as herein- 
after provided, of a joint commission, to be known as the International Joint 
Commission. 

The foregoing provisions are not intended to limit or interfere with the ex- 
isting rights of the Government of the United States on the one side and the 
Government of the Dominion of Canada on the other, to undertake and carry 
on governmental works in boundary waters for the deepening of channels, the 
construction of breakwaters, the improvement of harbors, and other govern- 
mental works for the benefit of commerce and navigation, provided that such 
works are wholly on its own side of the line and do not materially affect the 
level or flow of the boundary waters on the other, nor are such provisions in- 
tended to interfere with the ordinary use of such waters for domestic and 
sanitary purposes. 

Article IV. 

The High Contracting Parties agree that, except in cases provided for by 
special agreement between them, they will not permit the construction or 
maintenance on their respective sides of the boundary of any remedial or pro- 
tective works or any dams or other obstructions in waters flowing from 
boundary waters or in waters at a lower level than the boundary in rivers 
flowing across the boundary, the effect of which is to raise the natural level 
of waters on the other side of the boundary unless the construction or mainte- 
nance thereof is approved by the aforesaid International Joint Commission. 

It is further agreed that the waters herein defined as boundary waters and 
waters flowing across the boundary shall not be polluted on either side to the 
injury of health or property on the other. 

Article V. 

The High Contracting Parties agree that it is expedient to limit the diversion 
of waters from the Niagara River so that the level of Lake Erie and the flow 
of the stream shall not be appreciably affected. It is the desire of both Parties 
to accomplish this object with the least possible injury to investments which 
have already been made in the construction of power plants on the United 
States side of the river under grants of authority from the State of New York, 
and on the Canadian side of the river under licenses authorized by the 
Dominion of Canada and the Province of Ontario. 

So long as this treaty shall remain in force no diversion of the waters of the 
Niagara River above the Falls from the natural course and stream thereof shall 
be permitted except for the purposes and to the extent hereinafter provided. 

The United States may authorize and permit the diversion within the State 
of New York of the waters of said river above the Falls of Niagara, for power 
purposes, not exceeding in the aggregate a daily diversion at the rate of twenty 
thousand cubic feet of water per second. 

The United Kingdom, by the Dominion of Canada, or the Province of On- 
tario, may authorize and permit the diversion within the Province of Ontario 
of the waters of said river above the Falls of Niagara, for power purposes, 
not exceeding in the aggregate a daily diversion at the rate of thirty-six 
thousand cubic feet of water per second. 



408 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

The prohibitions of this article shall not apply to the diversion of water for 
sanitary or domestic purposes, or for the service of canals for the purposes of 
navigation. 

Aeticle VI. 

The High Contracting Parties agree that the Saint Mary and Milk Rivers 
and their tributaries (in the State of Montana and the Provinces of Alberta 
and Saskatchewan) are to be treated as one stream for the purposes of irriga- 
tion and power, and the waters thereof shall be apportioned equally between 
the two countries, but in making such equal apportionment, more than half 
may be taken from one river and less than half from the other by either 
country so as to afford a more beneficial use to each. It is further agreed that 
in the division of such waters during the irrigation season, between the 1st of 
April and 31st of October, inclusive, annually, the United States is entitled 
to a prior appropriation of five hundred cubic feet per second of the waters 
of the Milk River, or so much of such amount as constitutes three-fourths of 
its natural flow, and that Canada is entitled to a prior appropriation of five 
hundred cubic feet per second of the flow of Saint Mary River, or so much of 
such amount as constitutes three-fourths of its natural flow. 

The channel of the Milk River in Canada may be used at the convenience 
of the United States for the conveyance, while passing through Canadian terri- 
tory, of waters diverted from the Saint Mary River. The provisions of Article 
II of this treaty shall apply to any injury resulting to property in Canada 
from the conveyance of such waters through the Milk River. 

The measurement and apportionment of the water to be used by each 
country shall from time to time be made jointly by the properly constituted 
reclamation officers of the United States and the properly constituted irriga- 
tion officers of His Majesty under the direction of the International Joint 
Commission. 

Article VII. 

The High Contracting Parties agree to establish and maintain an Interna- 
tional Joint Commission of the United States and Canada, composed of six 
commissioners, three on the part of the United States appointed by the Presi- 
dent thereof, and three on the part of the United Kingdom appointed by His 
Majesty on the recommendation of the Governor in Council of the Dominion 
of Canada. 

Article VIII. 

This International Joint Commission shall have jurisdiction over and shall 
pass upon all cases involving the use or obstruction or diversion of the waters 
with respect to which, under Articles III and IV of this treaty, the approval 
of this commission is required, and in passing upon such cases the commission 
shall be governed by the following rules or principles which are adopted by the 
High Contracting Parties for this purpose : 

The High Contracting Parties shall have, each on its own side of the boun- 
dary, equal and similar rights in the use of the waters hereinbefore defined 
as boundary waters. 

The following order of precedence shall be observed among the various uses 
enumerated hereinafter for these waters, and no use shall be permitted which 
tends materially to conflict with or restrain any other use which is given 
preference over it in this order of precedence : 

First. Uses for domestic and sanitary purposes. 

Second. Uses for navigation, including the service of canals for the purposes 
of navigation. 

Third. Uses for power and for irrigation purposes. 

The foregoing provisions shall not apply to or disturb any existing uses of 
boundary waters on either side of the boundary. 

The requirement for an equal division may, in the discretion of the commis- 
sion, be suspended in cases of temporary diversions along boundary waters at 
points where such equal division can not be made advantageously on account 
of local conditions and where such diversion does not diminish elsewhere the 
amount available for use on the other side. 

The commission in its discretion may make its approval in any case condi- 
tional upon the construction of remedial or protective works to compensate so far 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 409 

as possible for the particular use or diversion proposed, and in such cases may 
require that suitable and adequate provision, approved by the commission, be 
made for the protection and indemnity against injury of any interests on 
either side of the boundary. 

In cases involving the elevation of the natural level of waters on either side 
of the line as a result of the construction or maintenance on the other side of 
remedial or protective works or dams or other obstructions in boundary waters 
or in waters flowing therefrom or in waters below the bounday in rivers flow- 
ing across the boundary, the commission shall require, as a condition of its 
approval thereof, that suitable and adequate provision, approved by it, be 
made for the protection and indemnity of all interests on the other side of the 
line which may be injured thereby. 

The majority of the commissioners shall have power to render a decision. In 
case the commission is evenly divided upon any question or matter presented 
to it tor decision, separate reports shall be made by the commissioners on each 
side to their own Government. The High Contracting Parties shall thereupon 
endeavor to agree upon an adjustment of the question or matter of difference, 
and if an agreement is reached between them it shall be reduced to writing 
in the form of a protocol, and shall be communicated to the commissioners, who 
shall take such further proceedings as may oe necessary to carry out such 
agreement. 

Article IX. 

The High Contracting Parties further agree that any other questions or 
matters of difference arising between them involving the rights, obligations, or 
interests of either in relation to the other or to the inhabitants of the other, 
along the common frontier between the United States and the Dominion of 
Canada, shall be referred from time to time to the International Joint Com- 
mission for examination and report, whenever either the Government of the 
United States or the Government of the Dominion of Canada shall request that 
such questions or matters of difference be so referred. 

The International Joint Commission is authorized in each case so referred 
to examine into and report upon the facts and circumstances of the particular 
questions and matters referred, together with such conclusions and recommenda- 
tions as may be appropriate, subject, however, to any restrictions or exceptions 
which may be imposed with respect thereto by the terms of the reference. 

Such reports of the commissions shall not be regarded as decisions of the 
questions or matters so submitted either on the facts or the law. and shall 
in no way have the character of an arbitral award. 

The commission shall make a joint report to both Governments in all cases 
in which all or a majority of the commissioners agree, and in case of disagree- 
ment the minority may make a joint report to both Governments or separate 
reports to their respective Governments. 

In case the commission is evenly divided upon any question or matter re- 
ferred to it for report, separate reports shall be made by the commissioners on 
each side to their own Government. 

Article X. 

Any questions or matters of difference arising between the High Contracting 
Parties involving the rights, obligations, or interests of the United States or 
of the Dominion of Canada either in relation to each other or to their respec- 
tive inhabitants, may be referred for decision to the International Joint Com- 
mission by the consent of the two parties, it being understood that on the part 
of the United States any such action will be by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, and on the part of His Majesty's Government with the consent 
of the Governor General in Council. In each case so referred the said com- 
mission is authorized to examine into and report upon the facts and circum- 
stances of the particular questions and matters referred, together with such 
conclusions and recommendations as may be appropriate, subject, however, to 
any restrictions or exceptions which may be imposed with respect thereto by 
the terms of the reference. 

A majority of the said commission shall have power to render a decision or 
finding upon any of the questions or matters so referred. 

If the said cmmission is equally divided or otherwise unable to render a de- 
cision or finding as to any questions or matters so referred, it shall be the duty 
of the commissioners to make a joint report to both Governments, or separate 
reports to their respective Governments, showing the different conclusions 



410 DIVERSION OF WATER EROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

arrived at with regard to the matters or questions so referred, which questions 
or matters shall thereupon be referred for decision by the High Contracting 
Parties to an umpire chosen in accordance with the procedure prescribed in 
the fourth, fifth, and sixth paragraphs of Article XLV of The Hague Convention 
for the pacific settlement of international disputes, dated October eighteenth, 
nineteen hundred and seven. Such umpire shall have power to render a final 
decision with respect to those matters and questions so referred on which the 
commission failed. 

Article XI. 

A duplicate original of all decisions rendered and joint reports made by the 
commission shall be transmitted to and filed with the Secretary of State of the 
United States and the Governor General of the Dominion of Canada, and to 
them shall be addressed all communications of the commissions. 

Article XII. 

The International Joint Commission shall meet and organize at Washington 
promptly after the members thereof are appointed, and when organized the 
commission may fix such times and places for its meetings as may be necessary, 
subject at all times to special call or direction by the two Governments. Each 
commissioner, upon the first joint meeting of the commission after his appoint- 
ment, shall, before proceeding with the work of the commission, make and 
subscribe a solemn declaration in writing that he will faithfully and impartially 
perform the duties imposed upon him under this treaty, and such declaration 
shall be entered on the records of the proceedings of the commission. 

The United States and Canadian sections of the commission may each appoint 
a secretary, and these shall act as joint secretaries of the commission at its 
joint session, and the commission may employ engineers and clerical assistants 
from time to time as it may deem advisable. The salaries and personal expenses 
of the commission and of the secretaries shall be paid by their respective Gov- 
ernments, and all reasonable and necessary joint expenses of the commission 
incurred by it shall be paid in equal moieties by the High Contracting Parties. 

The commission shall have power to administer oaths to witnesses, and to 
take evidence on oath whenever deemed necessary in any proceeding, or in- 
quiry, or matter within its jurisdiction under this treaty, and all parties in- 
terested therein shall be given convenient opportunity to be heard, and the High 
Contracting Parties agree to adopt such legislation as may be appropriate and 
necessary to give the commission the powers above mentioned on each side of 
the boundary, and to provide for the issue of subpoenas and for compelling the 
attendance of witnesses in proceedings before the commission. The commission 
may adopt such rules of procedure as shall be in accordance with justice and 
equity and may make such examination in person and through agents or em- 
ployees as may be deemed advisable. 

Article XIII. 

In all cases where special agreements between the High Contracting Parties 
hereto are referred to in the foregoing articles, such agreements are understood 
and intended to include not only direct agreements between the High Con- 
tracting Parties, but also any mutual arrangement between the United States 
and the Dominion of Canada expressed by concurrent or reciprocal legislation 
on the part of Congress and the Parliament of the Dominion. 

Article XIV. 

The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United States of 
America, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate thereof, and by 
His Britannic Majesty. The ratifications shall be exchanged at Washington as 
soon as possible and the treaty shall take effect on the date of the exchange of 
its ratifications. It shall remain in force for five years, dating from the day of 
exchange of ratifications, and thereafter until terminated by twelve months' 
written notice given by either High Contracting Party to the other. 

In faith whereof the respective plenipotentiaries have signed this treaty in 
duplicate and have hereunto affixed their seals. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AXD NIAGARA RIVER. 411 

Done at Washington the eleventh day of January, in the year of our Lord 
nineteen hundred and nine. 

(Signed) Elihtj Root. [seal.] 

(Signed) James Bryce. [seal.] 

And whereas the Senate of the United States by their resolution of March 
third, nineteen hundred and nine (two-thirds of the Senators present concurring 
therein), did advise and consent to the ratification of the said treaty with 
the following understanding, to wit : 

Resolved further (as a part of this ratification), That the United States ap- 
proves this treaty with the understanding that nothing in this treaty shall be 
construed as affecting or changing any existing territorial or riparian rights 
in the water, or rights of the owners of lands under water, on either side of 
the international boundary at the rapids of the Saint Marys River at Sault 
Sainte Marie, in the use of the waters flowing over such lands, subject to the 
requirements of navigation in boundary waters, and of navigation canals, and 
without prejudice to the existing right of the United States and Canada, each 
to use the waters of the Saint Marys River within its own territory ; and fur- 
ther, that nothing in this treaty shall be construed to interfere with the drain- 
age of wet, swamp, and overflowed lands into streams flowing into boundary 
waters, and that this interpretation will be mentioned in the ratification of 
this treaty as conveying the true meaning of the treaty, and will, in effect, form 
part of the treaty. 

And whereas the said understanding has been accepted by the Government 
of Great Britain, and the ratifications of the two Governments of the said treaty 
were exchanged in the city of Washington on the fifth day of May, one thousand 
nine hundred and ten ; 

Now, therefore, be it known that I, William Howard Taft, President of the 
United States of America, have caused the said treaty and the said under- 
standing, as forming a part thereof, to be made public, to the end that the same 
and every article and clause thereof may be observed and fulfilled with good 
faith by the United States and the citizens thereof. 

In testimony whereof I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of 
the United States to be affixed. 

Done at the city of Washington this thirteenth day of May, in the year of our 
Lord nineteen hundred and ten, and of the independence of the United States of 
America the one hundred and thirtv-fourth. 

[seal.] Wm. H. Taft. 

Bv the President : 
P. C. Knox, 

Secretary of State. 

Protocol of Exchange. 

On proceeding to the exchange of the ratifications of the treaty signed at 
Washington on January eleventh, nineteen hundred and nine, between the 
United States and Great Britain, relating to boundary waters and questions 
arising along the boundary between the United States and the Dominion of 
Canada, the undersigned plenipotentiaries, duly authorized thereto by their re- 
spective Governments, hereby declare that nothing in this treaty shall be 
construed as affecting, or changing, any existing territorial or riparian rights 
in the water, or rights of the owners of lands under water, on either side of 
the international boundary at the rapids of the Saint Marys Eiver at Sault 
Sainte Marie, in the use of the waters flowing over such lands, subject to the 
requirements of navigation in boundary waters and of navigation canals, and 
without prejudice to the existing right of the United States and Canada, cadi 
to use the waters of the Saint Marys River, within its own territory ; and further, 
that nothing in this treaty shall be construed to interfere with the drainage of 
wet, swamp, and overflowed lands into streams flowing into boundary waters, 
and also that this declaration shall be deemed to have equal force and effect 
as the treaty itself and to form an integral part thereto. 

The exchange of ratifications then took place in the usual form. 

In witness whereof they have signed the present protocol of exchange and 
have affixed their seals thereto. 

Done at Washington this fifth day of May, nineteen hundred and ten. 

Philander C. Knox, [seal.] 
James Bryce. [seal.] 



412 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Desirable alterations. — Although the operation of the treaty has 
been successful and satisfactory to date, and no difficulty has arisen 
because of the distinction between diversions from boundary waters 
and diversions from waters tributary to boundary waters, it is 
deemed advisable in the interest of clearness and to avoid possible 
future complicatons, to modify Articles II and III of the treaty so 
as to extend the jurisdiction of the International Joint Commission 
to such tributary waters, 

Article V of the treaty deals with the matter of the diversion of the 
waters of Niagara River for power production. When the article 
was agreed upon it covered the existing situation. Now, however, it 
is felt to be outgrown. Power installations now under construction 
will give sufficient capacity to divert water in excess of the limits 
defined in this article on both sides of the river. There is a steadily 
increasing demand for power, and whatever diversions may be 
allowed in the future, it is certain that a market will soon be found 
for all the power that can be developed. Under the plans outlined 
in Appendices C and D of this report a greater diversion than that 
authorized in Article V can safely be allowed, while at the same time 
the scenic preservation is cared for in what is believed to be the best 
possible manner. 

The amount of water that can be diverted from the Niagara Elver 
without serious damage to the scenic beauty of the Falls and rapids 
has been fully discussed in Appendix C of this report. It was there 
stated that a total diversion of 80,000 cubic feet per second might 
safely be allowed if half of it were returned to the Maid-of-the-Mist 
Pool and if suitable remedial works were constructed. This figure 
was considered to be a minimum. It is quite possible that when this 
amount has been diverted, observation will show that a further di- 
version is allowable. 

The reasons for the unequal division of diversions from the upper 
Niagara River stipulated in the treaty have been given in Section 
1-1, and it has there been explained that these reasons no longer hold. 
However correct and just these provisions of diversion limits in 
Article V may have been in 1910, it appears evident that they are not 
now satisfactory or just, and that the increases granted should be so 
apportioned as to make the total diversions from Niagara River for 
power development equal on both sides of the boundary. 

In section F of this report the methods of utilizing the diversion to 
the best advantage have been considered at some length. The proj- 
ects in which water is diverted from the Upper River, discharged 
into the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool and then drawn again from that pool 
for utilization at a lower stage, were not thought to be desirable. In 
the case of the two-stage propositions described in Section F it may at 
times be advisable to draw a certain amount of water from the Maid- 
of-the-Mist Pool. For this reason it is thought that the treaty should 
permit the use of water in this manner. Under the present treaty the 
diversion of water from the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool and around the 
Whirlpool and Lower Rapids is left under the jurisdiction of the 
International Joint Commission without any specific limitation. The 
use of such diversion is so intimately allied with the use of diversions 
from the Upper River that it seems advisable to include it in Arti- 
cle V. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 413 

The introductory sentence of Article. V states that " it is expedient 
to Limit the diversion of waters from the Niagara River so that the 
level of Lake Erie and the flow of the streams shall not be appre- 
ciably affected." Diversions from the Maid-of-the-Mist Pool do not 
affect the level of Lake Erie, but they do affect the " flow of the 
stream." They also affect the scenic beauty of the Lower Rapids. 
That the preservation of the scenic beauty of the Falls and rapids 
was one of the underlying motives which led to the adoption of the 
treaty is a well-known historical fact which is amply confirmed by 
the language of the Burton Act, section 4 of which reads as f ollows : 

Sec. 4. That the President of the United States is respectfully requested to 
open negotiations with the Government of Great Britain for the purpose of 
effectually providing by suitable treaty with said Government for such regu- 
lation and control of the waters of Niagara River and its tributaries as will 
preserve the scenic grandeur of Niagara Falls and of the rapids in said river. 

For these reasons it would be well if this motive were added in 
the introduction to Article V of the treaty. 

In the operation of large hydroelectric plants the amount of wa- 
ter used is not completely under the control of the operators. The 
action of some consumer, possibly miles away, may throw an in- 
creased load upon the generators. The governors will at once open 
the gates of the turbines, and more water will be passed through 
them. It thus happens that a company trying to obtain the full 
benefit of the diversion allotted it will, from time to time, violate 
the provisions of its permit through no fault of its own. If the 
limitations of the permit are rigidly enforced, this condition com- 
pels the companj' to leave a constant margin of safety, and habitu- 
ally develop less power than it is lawfully entitled to, thus sustain- 
ing a financial loss which ultimately falls on the community. 

These accidental peak loads occur so seldom and are of such brief 
duration that it is to the advantage of all concerned that the com- 
panies should not be penalized because of them. It is desirable, 
therefore, that all permits should be so worded that such accidental 
temporary peaks will not be deemed a violation of the permit. The 
treaty also should preferably be so framed as to allow small acci- 
dental diversion in excess of its limitations. 

There is a question as to the advisability of altering the treaty so 
as to deal more in detail with those matters concerning the construc- 
tion of compensating works other than the " remedial works " at 
the Horseshoe Falls. It is believed that the treaty is satisfactory 
now in this respect. Such works are essential, but there has been no 
difficulty in providing them at Sault Ste. Marie under the present 
treaty, and there appears no reason why equal satisfaction might 
not be experienced elsewhere. Joint legislative action of the United 
States and Canada is necessary, and approval of the projects by the 
International Joint Commission. Suggestion is made of the advisa- 
bility of establishing in this connection a permanent commission 
of advisory engineers, well informed on matters pertaining to the 
hydraulics of the Great Lakes. 

3. INTERESTS OF VARIOUS STATES. 

The States of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, 
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, and the Canadian Provinces of 



414 DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 

Ontario and Quebec abut upon the waters of the Great Lakes and 
the St. Lawrence River, and are affected by diversions of these 
waters. The character of these effects have been discussed in Sec- 
tion G. The State of Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, 
Mississippi, and Louisiana are situated on the Mississippi River 
below the point where the diversion of the Chicago Drainage Canal 
is received, and have at least a theoretical interest in that diver- 
sion. These 14 States and 2 Provinces have a total population of 
about 61,000,000, containing 53 per cent of the population of the 
continental United States and 63 per cent of the population of the 
Dominion of Canada. 

The State of Missouri has claimed a vital interest in the Chicago 
diversion on the ground that it causes a dangerous pollution of the 
Mississippi River from which St. Louis and other cities of that 
State draw their water supply. When they brought suit to restrain 
the Sanitary District from creating this diversion they were un- 
able to prove that any such pollution occurred, and the Supreme 
Court dismissed the case without prejudice. It is not impossible 
that in the future the discovery of further evidence may lead to 
the reopening of the case. A more detailed account of this case is 
presented in Section B. 

The other States on the Mississippi have but a very small interest 
in this diversion. It increases the river flow by about 8,800 cubic 
feet per second and increases the volume and height of floods. As 
the flood flow amounts to from 500,000 to 2,000,000 cubic feet per 
second, the increase due to the addition of the Chicago diversion 
must be inappreciable. At extreme low water the navigation of 
the Mississippi suffers from insufficient draft. On the 25 -mile 
stretch, between the mouth of the Illinois River and the mouth of 
the Missouri, extreme low- water flows as small as 25,000 cubic feet 
per second have been reported. Under such conditions the addition 
of the Chicago diversion would be a real assistance to navigation. 
It is estimated that the diversion actually increases the low-water 
depths by about four-tenths of a foot. The actual assistance to navi- 
gation is very small, as the volume of navigation is not great, and 
the assistance is only needed during a very few weeks of low water 
in each year. At other times the available depths are ample. Far- 
ther down the river, and especially below Cairo, the increase in 
low-water depths is much less than four-tenths of a foot. 

The State of Minnesota is affected by the diversions at the Soo. 
As the effect of these has been, or soon will be, completely com- 
pensated, this State is not directly interested in the question of diver- 
sion as far as water levels in its harbors, rivers, and canals are con- 
cerned. It has, however, a vital interest in the lowering of the 
other lakes as its ports handle a very large part of the total lake 
commerce in ore, coal, and grain. 

The other seven States which abut upon the Great Lakes all have 
their problems of harbors and canals, which are directly affected by 
the diversions at Chicago, Niagara Falls, and other places. The 
benefit of these diversions is chiefly confined to Illinois and to New 
York, and each of these two States suffers somewhat from the 
diversions of the other. 



DIVERSION OF WATER FROM GREAT LAKES AND NIAGARA RIVER. 415 

It is not intended to attempt to. discuss the principles of constitu- 
tional law involved. It appears from an engineering point of view, 
however, that the adjustment of the conflicting and widely varying 
interests of such a large number of States is a matter with which 
only the Federal Government can justly and effectively deal. This 
view has not always been accepted. It has been claimed on behalf 
of the States of Illinois and New York that use by them of the waters 
adjacent to their shores is a purely domestic matter with which 
neither the Federal Government nor any other State could interfere. 
The claim of Illinois is now being considered by a Federal court in 
the case of the United States v. The Sanitary District of Chicago, 
and it is hoped that the decision in this case will settle that point. 
This case is described in Section B. 

The contention of the State of New York is somewhat different. 
The attorney general of that State appeared before the House of 
Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs in 1912 to object to 
the passage of certain bills concerning the diversion at Niagara. He 
admitted that the Federal Government had the right to limit diver- 
sions and grant permits for diversions, but claimed that its rights 
ended there, and that the permits could not be conditional. It was 
desired that the Government should fix a definite limit on the diver- 
sion and then leave to the State the allotment of the diversion to dif- 
ferent companies, and the regulation of its use. The contrary view is 
that the Government may grant permits for certain parts of the di- 
version and make them conditional upon the attainment of certain 
efficiencies, the maintaining of certain rates, or the observance of any 
other conditions it sees fit to impose. The latter view would appear 
to be more in accordance with the tend of recent legislation, and 
recent decisions of the Supreme Court. 

TV. S. Richmond. 

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